A New Architecture for DNA‐Templated Synthesis in Which Abasic Sites Protect Reactants from Degradation

The synthesis of artificial sequence‐defined polymers that match and extend the functionality of proteins is an important goal in materials science. One way of achieving this is to program a sequence of chemical reactions between precursor building blocks by means of attached oligonucleotide adapters. However, hydrolysis of the reactive building blocks has so far limited the length and yield of product that can be obtained using DNA‐templated reactions. Here, we report an architecture for DNA‐templated synthesis in which reactants are tethered at internal abasic sites on opposite strands of a DNA duplex. We show that an abasic site within a DNA duplex can protect a nearby thioester from degradation, significantly increasing the yield of a DNA‐templated reaction. This protective effect has the potential to overcome the challenges associated with programmable, sequence‐controlled synthesis of long non‐natural polymers by extending the lifetime of the reactive building blocks

A New Architecture for DNA‐Templated Synthesis in Which Abasic Sites Protect Reactants from Degradation

The synthesis of artificial sequence‐defined polymers that match and extend the functionality of proteins is an important goal in materials science. One way of achieving this is to program a sequence of chemical reactions between precursor building blocks by means of attached oligonucleotide adapters. However, hydrolysis of the reactive building blocks has so far limited the length and yield of product that can be obtained using DNA‐templated reactions. Here, we report an architecture for DNA‐templated synthesis in which reactants are tethered at internal abasic sites on opposite strands of a DNA duplex. We show that an abasic site within a DNA duplex can protect a nearby thioester from degradation, significantly increasing the yield of a DNA‐templated reaction. This protective effect has the potential to overcome the challenges associated with programmable, sequence‐controlled synthesis of long non‐natural polymers by extending the lifetime of the reactive building blocks

Engineering Genetically Encoded Nanosensors for Real-Time In Vivo Measurements of Citrate Concentrations

Citrate is an intermediate in catabolic as well as biosynthetic pathways and is an important regulatory molecule in the control of glycolysis and lipid metabolism. Mass spectrometric and NMR based metabolomics allow measuring citrate concentrations, but only with limited spatial and temporal resolution. Methods are so far lacking to monitor citrate levels in real-time in-vivo. Here, we present a series of genetically encoded citrate sensors based on Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). We screened databases for citrate-binding proteins and tested three candidates in vitro. The citrate binding domain of the Klebsiella pneumoniae histidine sensor kinase CitA, inserted between the FRET pair Venus/CFP, yielded a sensor highly specific for citrate. We optimized the peptide linkers to achieve maximal FRET change upon citrate binding. By modifying residues in the citrate binding pocket, we were able to construct seven sensors with different affinities spanning a concentration range of three orders of magnitude without losing specificity. In a first in vivo application we show that E. coli maintains the capacity to take up glucose or acetate within seconds even after long-term starvation

Placement and orientation of individual DNA shapes on lithographically patterned surfaces

Artificial DNA nanostructures show promise for the organization of functional materials to create nanoelectronic or nano-optical devices. DNA origami, in which a long single strand of DNA is folded into a shape using shorter 'staple strands', can display 6-nm-resolution patterns of binding sites, in principle allowing complex arrangements of carbon nanotubes, silicon nanowires, or quantum dots. However, DNA origami are synthesized in solution and uncontrolled deposition results in random arrangements; this makes it difficult to measure the properties of attached nanodevices or to integrate them with conventionally fabricated microcircuitry. Here we describe the use of electron-beam lithography and dry oxidative etching to create DNA origami-shaped binding sites on technologically useful materials, such as SiO_2 and diamond-like carbon. In buffer with ~ 100 mM MgCl_2, DNA origami bind with high selectivity and good orientation: 70–95% of sites have individual origami aligned with an angular dispersion (±1 s.d.) as low as ±10° (on diamond-like carbon) or ±20° (on SiO_2)

Ladungstransport durch RNA – Etablierung geeigneter Systeme und Implikationen für RNA-Funktionskontrolle

Vor dem Hintergrund des noch wenig erforschten RNA-Ladungstransfers, lag der Fokus der Arbeit auf die Etablierung eines Ladungstranfers innerhalb einer funktionellen RNA. Als Modellsystem diente dazu das HPAR2, ein FMN-abhängiges Aptazym, dessen strukturdynamische Funktionsweise noch nicht komplett verstanden ist. Dabei galt es zum einen innerhalb der funktionellen Aptamerdomäne einen Ladungstransport zu etablieren. Zum anderen musste eine geeignete Position innerhalb der Aptamerstruktur für die Einführung eines nukleophilen Linkers identifiziert und verifiziert werden, um postsynthetisch die Verknüpfung mit dem FMN zu ermöglichen. Zusätzlich wurde durch die Synthese verschiedener nukleosidischer Sonden die Anwendung spektroskopischer Methoden zur Untersuchung dynamische RNA-Funktionen ermöglicht. Dabei gelang es eine neue Strategie zur Einführung einer Spin-Sonde in eine RNA zu entwickeln. Des Weiteren gelang die Darstellung einer nukleosidischen PHIP-Sonde, die eine außergewöhnlich hohe Signalverstärkung zeigte. Um die Funktionskontrolle des Modellsystems über einen intramolekularen Elektronentransport zu ermöglichen, musste zunächst die Synthese eines dementsprechend Linker-modifizierten Adenosins erfolgen. Der Einbau dieses Linker-modifizierten Adenosins durch chemische Festphasensynthese lieferte zwei RNAs, die durch Hybridisierung mit entsprechenden Gegensträngen das FMN-Aptamer und das FMN-abhängige Modellsystem HPAR2 bilden. Der zweite Teil dieser Arbeit, der Vorbereitung eines Elektronentransfer-sensitiven Aptazyms, setzte die Bereitstellung eines nukleosidischen Elektronendonors voraus. Dafür erfolgte die Synthese und Charakterisierung zweier Pyren-modifizierte Uridinderivate. Die Charakterisierung beider Elektronendonoren durch optische Spektroskopie (Fluoreszenz und UV/Vis) resultierte in vielversprechenden Hinweisen, dass die Erzeugung eines Überschusselektrons nach Anregung mit Licht einer bestimmten Wellenlänge gelang. Der erfolgreiche Einbau des substituierten Pyren-Nukleosidderivates in fünf verschiedene Duplex- und sechs verschiedene Aptamerstrukturen und deren spektroskopische Charakterisierung erlaubte die Untersuchung des RNA-Ladungstransports. Der Nachweis eines Ladungstransfers gelang für beide Systeme über zwei unterschiedliche Methoden. Einerseits konnte der Ladungstransfer über Fluoreszenzspektroskopie nachgewiesen werden und andererseits gelang der Nachweis über die Degradierung des eingebauten Akzeptors. Diese Ergebnisse stellen den ersten Ladungstransfers durch eine nicht Watson-Crick gepaarte Nukleinsäurestruktur dar. Zudem ist dies die erste Demonstration eines Sequenz-abhängigen Ladungstransportes innerhalb einer RNA.Against the background of little-explored RNA charge transfer, the focus of this work was the establishment of a charge transfer within a functional RNA. As model system HPAR2 was used, an FMN-dependent aptazyme whose structure-dynamic functionality is not yet fully understood. The charge transport had to be established within the functional aptamer domain. On the other hand, a suitable position within the aptamer structure for the introduction of a nucleophilic linker had to be identified and verified to attach the FMN post synthetically. In addition, the synthesis of various labeled nucleosides was needed to enable the application of spectroscopic methods to study dynamic RNA functions. It succeeded in developing a new strategy for introducing a spin label into an RNA. Furthermore, the preparation of a PHIP label, connected to the nucleobase of uridine showed an exceptionally high signal amplification. The synthesis of a linker-modified adenosine was needed, in order to enable functional control of the model system via an intramolecular electron transport. Incorporation of this linker-modified adenosine by solid-phase chemical synthesis yielded two RNAs that hybridize with corresponding counterparts to form the FMN aptamer and the FMN-dependent model system HPAR2. The second part of this work, the preparation of an electron-transfer-sensitive aptazyme, required the provision of a nucleosidic electron donor. This involved the synthesis and characterization of two pyrene-modified uridine derivatives. The characterization of both electron donors by optical spectroscopy (fluorescence and UV / Vis) resulted in promising evidence that the generation of an excess electron was possible after excitation with light of a certain wavelength. The successful incorporation of the substituted pyrene nucleoside derivative into five different duplex and six different aptamer structures and their spectroscopic characterization allowed the study of RNA charge transport. The proof of a charge transfer succeeded for both systems over two different methods. On the one hand, the charge transfer could be detected by fluorescence spectroscopy and on the other hand, it was possible to prove the degradation of the incorporated acceptor. These results represent the first charge transfer by a non-Watson-Crick paired nucleic acid structure. Moreover, this is the first demonstration of sequence-dependent charge transport within an RNA

The microbiome of field-caught and laboratory-adapted Australian tephritid fruit fly species with different host plant use and specialisation

Tephritid fruit fly species display a diversity of host plant specialisation on a scale from monophagy to polyphagy. Furthermore, while some species prefer ripening fruit, a few are restricted to damaged or rotting fruit. Such a diversity of host plant use may be reflected in the microbial symbiont diversity of tephritids and their grade of dependency on their microbiomes. Here, we investigated the microbiome of six tephritid species from three genera, including species that are polyphagous pests (Bactrocera tryoni, Bactrocera neohumeralis, Bactrocera jarvisi, Ceratitis capitata) and a monophagous specialist (Bactrocera cacuminata). These were compared with the microbiome of a non-pestiferous but polyphagous tephritid species that is restricted to damaged or rotting fruit (Dirioxa pornia). The bacterial community associated with whole fruit flies was analysed by 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) amplicon pyrosequencing to detect potential drivers of taxonomic composition. Overall, the dominant bacterial families were Enterobacteriaceae and Acetobacteraceae (both Proteobacteria), and Streptococcaceae and Enterococcaceae (both Firmicutes). Comparisons across species and genera found different microbial composition in the three tephritid genera, but limited consistent differentiation between Bactrocera species. Within Bactrocera species, differentiation of microbial composition seemed to be influenced by the environment, possibly including their diets; beyond this, tephritid species identity or ecology also had an effect. The microbiome of D. pornia was most distinct from the other five species, which may be due to its ecologically different niche of rotting or damaged fruit, as opposed to ripening fruit favoured by the other species. Our study is the first amplicon pyrosequencing study to compare the microbiomes of tephritid species and thus delivers important information about the turnover of microbial diversity within and between fruit fly species and their potential application in pest management strategies

Comprehensive transcriptome analysis of early male and female Bactrocera jarvisi embryos

Background: Developing embryos are provided with maternal RNA transcripts and proteins, but transcription from the zygotic nuclei must be activated to control continuing embryonic development. Transcripts are generated at different stages of early development, and those involved in sex determination and cellularisation are some of the earliest to be activated. The male sex in tephritid fruit flies is determined by the presence of a Y chromosome, and it is believed that a transcript from the Y-chromosome sets in motion a cascade that determines male evelopment, as part of the greater maternal to zygotic transition (MTZ). Here we investigate the poly(A+) transcriptome in early male and female embryos of the horticultural pest Bactrocera jarvisi (Diptera: Tephritidae). Results: Bactrocera jarvisi embryos were collected over two pre-blastoderm time periods, 2-3h and 3-5h after egg laying. Embryos were individually sexed using a Y-chromosome marker, allowing the sex-specific poly(A+) transcriptome of single-sex embryo pools to be deep-sequenced and assembled de novo. Transcripts for sixteen sex-determination and two cellularisation gene homologues of Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera: Drosophilidae) were identified in early embryos of B. jarvisi, including transcripts highly upregulated prior to cellularisation. No strong candidates for transcripts derived solely from the Y chromosome were recovered from the poly(A+) fraction. Conclusions: Bactrocera jarvisi provides an excellent model for embryonic studies due to available Y-chromosome markers and the compact time frame for zygotic transcription and the sex-determined state. Our data contribute fundamental information to sex-determination research, and provide candidates for the sourcing of gene promoters for transgenic pest-management strategies of tephritid fruit flies

Expression patterns of sex-determination genes in single male and female embryos of two Bactrocera fruit fly species during early development

In tephritids, the sex-determination pathway follows the sex-specific splicing of transformer (tra) mRNA, and the cooperation of tra and transformer-2 (tra-2) to effect the sex-specific splicing of doublesex (dsx), the genetic double-switch responsible for male or female somatic development. The Dominant Male Determiner (M) is the primary signal that controls this pathway. M, as yet uncharacterized, is Y-chromosome linked, expressed in the zygote and directly or indirectly diminishes active TRA protein in male embryos. Herewe first demonstrated the high conservation of tra, tra-2 and dsx in two Australian tephritids, Bactrocera tryoni and Bactrocera jarvisi. We then used quantitative reverse transcription PCR on single, sexed embryos to examine expression of the key sex-determination genes during early embryogenesis. Individual embryos were sexed using molecular markers located on the B. jarvisi Y-chromosome that was also introgressed into a B. tryoni line. In B. jarvisi, sex-specific expression of tra transcripts occurred between 3 to 6 h after egg laying, and the dsx isoform was established by 7 h. These milestones were delayed in B. tryoni lines. The results provide a time frame for transcriptomic analyses to identify M and its direct targets, plus information on genes that may be targeted for the development of male-only lines for pest management

Tropical tephritid fruit fly community with high incidence of shared Wolbachia strains as platform for horizontal transmission of endosymbionts

Summary: Wolbachia are endosymbiotic bacteria that infect 40-65% of arthropod species. They are primarily maternally inherited with occasional horizontal transmission for which limited direct ecological evidence exists. We detected Wolbachia in 8 out of 24 Australian tephritid species. Here, we have used multilocus sequence typing (MLST) to further characterize these Wolbachia strains, plus a novel quantitative polymerase chain reaction method for allele assignment in multiple infections. Based on five MLST loci and the Wolbachia surface protein gene (wsp), five Bactrocera and one Dacus species harboured two identical strains as double infections; furthermore, Bactrocera neohumeralis harboured both of these as single or double infections, and sibling species B.tryoni harboured one. Two Bactrocera species contained Wolbachia pseudogenes, potentially within the fruit fly genomes. A fruit fly parasitoid, Fopius arisanus shared identical alleles with two Wolbachia strains detected in one B.frauenfeldi individual. We report an unprecedented high incidence of four shared Wolbachia strains in eight host species from two trophic levels. This suggests frequent exposure to Wolbachia in this tropical tephritid community that shares host plant and parasitoid species, and also includes species that hybridize. Such insect communities may act as horizontal transmission platforms that contribute to the ubiquity of the otherwise maternally inherited Wolbachia