Comparison of dynamic cobble berm revetments with differing gravel characteristics

Pressure on the coastline is escalating due to the impacts of climate change, this is leading to a rise in sea-levels and intensifying storminess. Consequently, many regions of the coast are at increased risk of erosion and flooding. Therefore coastal protection schemes will increase in cost and scale. In response there is a growing use of nature-based coastal protection which aim to be sustainable, effective and adaptable. An example of a nature-based solution is a dynamic cobble berm revetment: a berm constructed from cobble and other gravel sediments at the high tide wave runup limit. These structures limit wave excursion protecting the hinterland from inundation, stabilise the upper beach and adapt to changes in water level. Recent experiments and field applications have shown the suitability of these structures for coastal protection, however many of the processes and design considerations are poorly understood. This study directly compares two prototype scale laboratory experiments which tested dynamic cobble berm revetments constructed with approximately the same geometry but differing gravel characteristics; well-sorted rounded gravel (DynaRev1) and poorly-sorted angular gravel (DynaRev2). In both cases the structures were tested using identical wave forcing including incrementally increasing water level and erosive wave conditions. The results presented in this paper demonstrate that both designs responded to changing water level and wave conditions by approaching a dynamically stable state, where individual gravel is mobilised under wave action but the geometry remains approximately constant. Further, both structures acted to reduce swash excursions compared to a pure sand beach. However, their morphological behaviour is response to wave action varied considerably. Once overtopping of the designed crest occurred, the poorly-sorted revetment developed a peaked crest which grew in elevation as the water level or wave height increased, further limited overtopping. By comparison, the well-sorted revetment was characterised by a larger volume of submerged gravel and a lower elevation flat crest which responded less well to changes in conditions. This occurred due to two processes: (1) for the poorly-sorted case, gravel sorting processes moved small to medium gravel material (D50<70mm) to the crest and (2) the angular nature of the poorly-sorted gravel material promoted increased interlocking. Both of these processes led to a gravel matrix that is more resistant to wave action and gravitational effects. Both revetments experienced some sinking due to sand erosion beneath the front slope. The rate of sinking for the well-sorted case was larger and continued throughout due to the large pore spaces within the gravel matrix. For the poorly sorted revetment in DynaRev2, sand erosion ceased after approximately 28 h due to the development of a filter layer of small gravel at the sand-gravel interface reducing porosity at this location, hence a larger volume of sand was preserved beneath the structure. Both designs present a low-cost and effective solution for protecting sandy coastlines but from an engineering viewpoint it appears better to avoid well-sorted gravel material and greater gravel angularity has been seen to increase crest stability

Comparison of dynamic cobble berm revetments with differing gravel characteristics

Pressure on the coastline is escalating due to the impacts of climate change, this is leading to a rise in sea-levels and intensifying storminess. Consequently, many regions of the coast are at increased risk of erosion and flooding. Therefore coastal protection schemes will increase in cost and scale. In response there is a growing use of nature-based coastal protection which aim to be sustainable, effective and adaptable. An example of a nature-based solution is a dynamic cobble berm revetment: a berm constructed from cobble and other gravel sediments at the high tide wave runup limit. These structures limit wave excursion protecting the hinterland from inundation, stabilise the upper beach and adapt to changes in water level. Recent experiments and field applications have shown the suitability of these structures for coastal protection, however many of the processes and design considerations are poorly understood. This study directly compares two prototype scale laboratory experiments which tested dynamic cobble berm revetments constructed with approximately the same geometry but differing gravel characteristics; well-sorted rounded gravel (DynaRev1) and poorly-sorted angular gravel (DynaRev2). In both cases the structures were tested using identical wave forcing including incrementally increasing water level and erosive wave conditions. The results presented in this paper demonstrate that both designs responded to changing water level and wave conditions by approaching a dynamically stable state, where individual gravel is mobilised under wave action but the geometry remains approximately constant. Further, both structures acted to reduce swash excursions compared to a pure sand beach. However, their morphological behaviour is response to wave action varied considerably. Once overtopping of the designed crest occurred, the poorly-sorted revetment developed a peaked crest which grew in elevation as the water level or wave height increased, further limited overtopping. By comparison, the well-sorted revetment was characterised by a larger volume of submerged gravel and a lower elevation flat crest which responded less well to changes in conditions. This occurred due to two processes: (1) for the poorly-sorted case, gravel sorting processes moved small to medium gravel material (D50&lt;70mm) to the crest and (2) the angular nature of the poorly-sorted gravel material promoted increased interlocking. Both of these processes led to a gravel matrix that is more resistant to wave action and gravitational effects. Both revetments experienced some sinking due to sand erosion beneath the front slope. The rate of sinking for the well-sorted case was larger and continued throughout due to the large pore spaces within the gravel matrix. For the poorly sorted revetment in DynaRev2, sand erosion ceased after approximately 28 h due to the development of a filter layer of small gravel at the sand-gravel interface reducing porosity at this location, hence a larger volume of sand was preserved beneath the structure. Both designs present a low-cost and effective solution for protecting sandy coastlines but from an engineering viewpoint it appears better to avoid well-sorted gravel material and greater gravel angularity has been seen to increase crest stability.</p

Remote Sensing of Wave Overtopping on Dynamic Coastal Structures

The development of coastal regions combined with rising sea levels is leading to an increasing risk of coastal flooding caused by wave overtopping of natural beaches and engineered coastal structures. Previous measurements of wave overtopping have been obtained for static coastal structures using fixed current meters and depth sensors or tanks. These are unsuitable for dynamically stable coastal protection structures however, because the geometry of these structures is expected to evolve under wave action. This study investigates the potential to use elevated 2D laser scanners (Lidar) to remotely sense the flow volumes overtopping the time-varying crest of a porous dynamic cobble berm revetment. Two different analysis methods were used to estimate the wave-by-wave overtopping volumes from measurements of the time-varying free surface elevation with good agreement. The results suggest that the commonly used EurOtop parameterisation can be used to estimate overtopping discharge to an acceptable precision. An advantage of the remote sensing approach reported here is that it enables the spatial distribution of overtopping discharge and infiltration rate to be measured. It was found that the overtopping discharge on a porous dynamic revetment decays rapidly landward of the structure crest, and that this has implications for safety and structure desig

Movement mechanics as a determinate of muscle structure, recruitment and coordination

During muscle contractions, the muscle fascicles may shorten at a rate different from the muscle-tendon unit, and the ratio of these velocities is its gearing. Appropriate gearing allows fascicles to reduce their shortening velocities and allows them to operate at effective shortening velocities across a range of movements. Gearing of the muscle fascicles within the muscle belly is the result of rotations of the fascicles and bulging of the belly. Variable gearing can also occur as a result of tendon length changes that can be caused by changes in the relative timing of muscle activity for different mechanical tasks. Recruitment patterns of slow and fast fibres are crucial for achieving optimal muscle performance, and coordination between muscles is related to whole limb performance. Poor coordination leads to inefficiencies and loss of power, and optimal coordination is required for high power outputs and high mechanical efficiencies from the limb. This paper summarizes key studies in these areas of neuromuscular mechanics and results from studies where we have tested these phenomena on a cycle ergometer are presented to highlight novel insights. The studies show how muscle structure and neural activation interact to generate smooth and effective motion of the body