Arbitrary Metrics in Mental Toughness Research: A Pilot Study of Female, NCAA, Division I Basketball Players and Their Strength and Conditioning Coach

Over the past two decades, mental toughness (MT) has become one of the most popular concepts in the field of positive psychology and more particularly, in both basic and applied sport psychology. However, the dependence on arbitrary metrics remains one of the major disapprovals of MT research as a whole. Although recently relationships of MT and objective performance indicators have been investigated (e.g., race time), arbitrary metrics still appear inadequate to support answers when it comes to the actual meaning and practicality of self-reported MT scores. Multi-rating, via cross-verification from various sources, can increase the validation of scores of psychological constructs. PURPOSE: Use multi-rating as an alternative to avoid the pitfalls of arbitrary metrics and focus on the inter-rater meaning of the MT scores, rather than on the pure score of the underlying construct. METHODS: A Big Ten women’s basketball team (n = 11) and their strength and conditioning coach (SCC) were recruited. The Mental Toughness Index (MTI) was used for data collection. MTI consists of eight items with scores ranging from one (i.e., False, 100% of the time) to seven (i.e. True, 100% of the time). Based on SCC’s recommendations, two assessments have taken place so far: one in pre-season (i.e., Time 1: September 2019) and one in season (i.e., Time 2: December 2019). After the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, MTI was uploaded on Qualtrics and all players received individualized links via email. The participants were then able to go online and submit their answers. To compare the MTI ratings across time and rater, a mixed effects ANOVA model was estimated in SPSS along with a plot of average MTI scores and correlations between the rankings of players from the players themselves and the SCC. RESULTS: On average, players rated themselves higher on MT than their SCC did. The average MTI scores differed between the players’ self-perceptions versus the SCC’s perception (F = 4.3, p = .05), regardless of when the MTI was completed. The scores did not change significantly across time. The correlations between the MTI ranks were .65 at Time 1 and .71 at Time 2. CONCLUSION: These preliminary findings suggest that the MT rankings were similar between players and the coach, despite the fact that players tended to score themselves about 7 points higher than the SCC. MT researchers may need to consider multi-rating as a possible remedy of the inherent methodological limitations of arbitrary metrics. These results not only support the continuation of this research, but also similar, future efforts (e.g., more than two raters, different sport, longitudinal design). Limitations include limited number of assessments and small sample size

Mental Toughness Trait or State A Case of Female, NCAA Division I Soccer Players

The importance of mental toughness (MT) in sport settings is well recognized. However, there is an ongoing debate on whether MT is a state or a trait. Recent findings supports the notion that, although there is considerable stability, MT levels could fluctuate over time. Undoubtedly, this has implications over the likelihood of developing MT and its conceptualization. PURPOSE: To examine whether MT levels fluctuate significantly or are relatively stable over time. METHODS: All 30 players of the same Atlantic 10 women’s soccer team agreed to participate (Mage= 20.3, SD=1.7). The Mental Toughness Index (MTI) was used for data collection through Qualtrics. Seven assessments took place in pre-season and during the season on a bi-weekly basis. To compare the MTI ratings across time, a repeated measures ANOVA model was estimated along with a profile plot of average MTI scores across time in SPSS. RESULTS: On average, MTI scores were very stable across time in terms of their means and standard deviations. The average scores across the seven administrations were 46.6, 45.9, 47.2, 47.8, 47.7, 46.0, and 47.1, respectively. These differences were not significant (F = 0.32, p = .93). CONCLUSION: Although there was considerable attrition across time, the results indicate that MT scores did not fluctuate significantly in a period of three and a half months without a targeted MT intervention. Therefore, the concept appeared trait-like. Our findings are in agreement with Clough et al. (2002), Crust (2007), and Hardy et al. (2014), but not in consensus with Harmisson (2011) and Gucciardi et al. (2015; Study 4). MT practitioners may need to consider not only when changes on the levels of the construct should be anticipated, but also the possibility of targeted interventions be required. MT researchers may need to reflect on what these outcomes add on the current conceptualizations and on the temporal intervals between repeated measurements that avoid carryover effects, but are still able to capture intra-individual variations. Future studies should include longitudinal designs, targeted interventions, and modeling in a multi-level framework (e.g., growth model). Limitations may include small sample size, self-assessment, and high attrition

Physical Inactivity during COVID-19 Moderates Body Fat Percentage - Relative Handgrip Strength Relationship on Black Females.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) prevalence is high in Blacks. Physical inactivity is among the contributing factors of MetS development. Relative handgrip strength (HSR), divided by body mass index, is negatively linked to MetS. Increased body fat percentage (BF%) worsens HSR and contributes to MetS. Physical activity (PA) improves related-MetS risk factors. Only 45% of Blacks over 18 years and less than 40% of US females are meeting the ACSM PA guidelines. During COVID-19 PA levels have been decreasing, while stress has been increasing. Such a phenomenon may contribute to MetS due to a change in BF%-HSR dynamics. PURPOSE: To explore associations between BF% and HSR and to investigate the effect of being physically active during the pandemic on the BF%-HSR relationship. METHODS: Anthropometrics, HS (dynamometer), and BF% (bioelectrical analysis) measurements performed on nine black female college students (age 21.3±4.0 yr). PROCESSÓ v.3 by Hayes moderation analysis performed using SPSSÓ. BF% centered for product construction and heteroscedasticity consistent error. Moderation and conditioning significance set at p\u3c0.05. RESULTS: Model significantly predicted HSR (F3,5=503.1, p\u3c.001, R2=.73). BF% and PA significantly predicted HSR (b=-.1, t5=-5.0, p=.004 and b=-1.2, t5=-8.3, p=.0004 respectively). BF% x PA interaction significantly moderated HSR (F1,5=57.9, p=.0006, ΔR2=.2). Black females, who met the PA guidelines before but not during the pandemic, presented significant positive relationship between BF% and HSR (b=0.07, t5=38.1, p\u3c.001). CONCLUSION: Results support the negative clinical relationship of BF% and HSR for previously physically active Black females that kept exercising during the stressful pandemic period. For those who did not remain physically active during the pandemic, BF% and HSR relationship was adversely (positive) moderated by their choice. No causal inferences can be drawn due to the cross-sectional design and small sample size. However, based on Bjorntrop hypothesis, the combined effect of physical inactivity and additional stress during COVID-19 may have altered the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and increased cortisol levels that led to an increase in fat accumulation. Larger-scale studies are needed to examine the mechanistic explanation of this observation

COVID-19 Adherence to Physical Activity Guidelines Moderates the Mental Health/Toughness Relationship on Black/Hispanic Females

Physical activity (PA) improves mental health (MH). Mental toughness (MT) positively correlates to MH. Only 45% of Hispanics and Blacks over 18 years and less than 40% of US females meet the ACSM PA guidelines. PA has been decreasing during the COVID-19. PURPOSE: Investigate during the pandemic the effect of PA adherence on the MT-MH relationship on previously physically active, Black and Hispanic females. METHODS: Fifteen females (age 21.3±3.6 yr), six Hispanic and nine Black, who met the ACSM guidelines before the pandemic, completed the Mental Health Continuum and Mental Toughness Index inventories, while reporting their PA habits during the pandemic. Data analyzed with double moderation model-2 (MH=Y; MT=X). PA habits and race were the moderators. MT centered for product construction and heteroscedasticity consistent error. Moderation and conditioning significance set at pÓ, PROCESSÓ v.3 by Hayes. RESULTS: Model significantly predicted MH (F5,9=8.9,p=.003, R2=.7). MT significantly predicted MH (b=11.0, t9=3.3, p=.009). Significant MTxPA interaction (F1,9=19.0,p=.002, ΔR2=.3). PA, race, and MTxRace interaction did not predict MH. Hispanics and Blacks, who met the PA guidelines before but not during, presented significant positive relationship between MT and MH (b=2.9, t9=3.7, p=.005;b=3.5, t9=5.4, p=.0004, respectively), with Blacks to better predict MH. Hispanics, who met the PA guidelines both before and during the pandemic, presented non-significant negative relationship between MT and MH (b=-.3, t9=-.3, p=.8) having the worst prediction for MH. Blacks retained a positive non-significant relationship between MT and MH (b=.4, t9=.6, p=.6) with a weak MH prediction. CONCLUSION: Results infer a buffering (Black) and an antagonistic (Hispanic) moderating effect on the MT-MH relationship on previously physically-active females. This preliminary evidence suggests that adhering to PA guidelines during the pandemic would decrease the effect of MT on MH (less positive) in Black females and reverse the effect of MT on MH (becomes negative) in Hispanic females. Possible explanations include different response to the additional stress of PA due to cultural differences. Larger-scale studies are needed to examine the mechanistic explanation of this observation

The Usage of Skeletal Muscle Oxygenation and Heart Rate Variability as Predictors of Aerobic Fitness.

Heart rate variability (HRV) is used to assess the autonomic nervous system’s (ANS) activity on the heart, while skeletal muscle oxygenation (SmO2) measures how well muscles uptake oxygen from the blood. Both measurements have demonstrated strong associations with cardiorespiratory fitness and are altered with increased exercise workloads. Both have been used to assess athletic performance. While the gold standard for assessing cardiorespiratory fitness is VO2 max testing, several situations preclude the usage of a true VO2 max. Purpose: To determine if HRV and SmO2 possess predictive qualities to accurately assess cardiorespiratory fitness levels. Methods: Thirty-six healthy fit individuals (n = 22 men; n = 14 women; age 37.6 + 12.4 yr; BF% 19.2 + 7.1%; VO2max 41.8 + 7.4 ml/kg/min) completed a single VO2 max ramp protocol treadmill test while wearing an infrared oxyhemoglobin (MOXY) Sensor to assess SmO2 while HRV was assessed via Polar (Bluetooth monitor (Polar H7)) heart rate (HR) monitor. The MOXY Sensor was placed on the lateral-posterior belly of the gastrocnemius while the Polar HR monitor was placed on the distal third of the sternum using an elastic belt. The data was analyzed using a Pearson Correlation to compare SmO2, HRV indices, and VO2max associations. In addition, a multiple linear regression analysis was performed to examine the relationship between HRV indices and SmO2 to VO2 max. All analyses were performed using SPSS (v. 28.0.1.1). Results: There was a significant correlation between VO2 max, mean of RR intervals (mRR) (r = 0.440, p = 0.007), and THb Max (r = 0.509, p = 0.002). mRR and THb Max were able to significantly predictive (r2 = 0.365, p = 0.001) VO2 max outcomes. Conclusion: The combination of SmO2 measurements and HRV can assist in predicting VO2 max levels, but further research is needed to determine the accuracy at which it will predict. This can be a useful and simple method for predicting cardiorespiratory fitness when a VO2 max test is unavailable, or an individual is unfit to perform one. This can aid in better exercise prescription for chronic diseased individuals

Stressed Fracture: The Relationship Between Coping Strategies and Workload in Secondary School Athletic Trainers

Purpose: The work environment for an athletic trainer (AT) working in a secondary school is typified by heavy workloads and job-related stress. Occupational stress can have negative effects on productivity, absenteeism, employee turnover, and quality of life. Research suggests that personal and situational factors can influence the coping process adopted by an individual. The approach-avoidance framework suggests that people cope with a stressor by either attempting to reduce it or removing oneself from that stressor. Previous research on other healthcare professionals suggested that use of avoidance coping was correlated with higher levels of job stress and those who perceived greater social support possessed lower work-related stress. However, the relationship between coping strategies and perceived social support has not been examined in ATs. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among coping strategies, perceived social support, and workload in secondary school ATs. Method: This was a cross-sectional study completed via an online survey. Three hundred, ninety-two (392) secondary school athletic trainers (35.7 ± 11.1 years old) from all NATA districts responded to the survey. Outcomes included the Brief COPE, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, and average hours worked. Results: The average workload reported was 44.10 ± 12.96 hours a week over the school year (i.e., fall and spring). The regression model showed that avoidant coping (B=0.34, 95% CI=0.12, 0.56, p=.005) was directly associated with the average number of hours worked (adjusted R2=.07). Approach coping (B=-0.28, 95% CI=-0.43, -0.12, p=.007) was indirectly associated with the average numbers of hours worked. However, perceived social support did not display a significant association with any variable of interest. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that a relationship between average workload and coping strategies adopted by secondary school ATs may exist. Increased workloads were related to increases in avoidance coping strategies. Further research in this area is needed to determine how coping strategies affect patient care

The Influence of Age and Cardiorespiratory Fitness on Cardiac Autonomic Modulation. A Pilot Study.

Maximal rate of oxygen consumption (VO2max) is traditionally viewed as the gold standard of determining cardiorespiratory fitness (CF) in healthy and diseased populations. CF has a significant influence on the improvement of cardiac autonomic modulation (CAM) and the risk of morbidity and mortality rates. Heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive way to assess CAM. Age is another factor that influences CAM and CF in healthy and diseased populations. However, what is not fully elucidated, is if CF is maintained at a high level throughout adulthood, will CAM remain relatively unchanged. PURPOSE: To determine if age and CF are significantly correlated to variables of HRV to determine CAM in healthy fit individuals. METHODS: Twenty-two healthy individuals (n = 14 male; n = 8 female, Age 33.2 ± 11.8 years, %BF 18.3 ± 6.0, VO2max 42.0 ± 6.2 ml/ /kg/min) completed a single health assessment to quantify CF and HRV. HRV was measured for 5 mins in the supine position and during a standard VO2max test using an elastic belt and Bluetooth monitor (Polar H7). CardioMood software was used to process HRV variables high frequency (HF), low frequency (LF), total power (TP) were assessed for frequency domain, and standard deviation of all NN intervals (SDNN) and the square root of the mean of the squares of successive R-R interval differences (RMSSD) for the time domain. Pearson correlation was used to check associations between age and CF, and CAM. Multiple regression was implemented to determine if there were any differences in HRV variables in relation to age and VO2max. A paired sample t-test was used to determine changes in HRV variables from rest to VO2max. All analyses were performed using SAS (v.9.3). RESULTS: HRV variables were significantly altered from rest to VO2max (p \u3c 0.05). HRV time and frequency domain variables were not significantly correlated to age and CF level (p \u3e 0.05). The multiple regression analysis indicated that the only significance was max heart rate is 0.642 bpm lower during exercise for each 1-year increase in age (p = 0.035). CONCLUSION: The analysis of pilot data focused on determining the impact of CF and age on CAM appears not to be significantly correlated when utilizing HRV. However, due to the project\u27s continuation and further data collection, significant outcomes may still be observed

Influence of Acute Turkesterone Dosing on Serum Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) and Subjective Digestibility Scores in Recreationally-active Males

Turkesterone is a relatively novel phytoecdysteroid compound that has become increasingly popular amongst recreationally active demographics. Despite prior in vitro data suggesting that this compound may support enhanced body composition via both insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-mediated protein synthesis, no human evidence exists in this regard nor how well its digestibility is tolerated. PURPOSE: To determine the effect of multiple turkesterone doses on serum IGF-1 and to report any gastrointestinal (GI) distress symptoms in a healthy human sample. METHODS: Eleven recreationally active males (23.3±2.2y) visited the laboratory on three occasions separated by at least seven days and were randomized in single-blind, placebo-controlled, and counter-balanced crossover fashion to either 2000mg cellulose placebo (PLA), 1000mg turkesterone + 1000mg placebo, (1000T) or 2000mg (2000T) turkesterone. Venous blood was sampled to determine serum IGF-1 concentrations and a GI distress questionnaire was (nausea, vomiting, heartburn symptoms, etc.) administered both at baseline (PRE), as well as 3-hours (POST3H) and 24-hours (POST24H) post-acute supplementation at each visit. Serum IGF-1 was analyzed using a two-way (condition [PLA, 1000T, 2000T] x time [PRE, POST3H, POST24H]) ANOVA with repeated measures at a significance level of pRESULTS: Analyses failed to reveal any significant condition (p=.180; ηp2=0.228), time (p=0.227; ηp2=.390), nor interaction effects (p=0.547; ηp2=0.211) for serum IGF-1. Moreover, no participants reported any GI distress symptoms across any condition and/or time permutation. CONCLUSION: Although the current study did not find any significant IGF-1-associated serum alterations to multiple acute turkesterone doses in the times assessed, there were fortunately no adverse GI symptoms experienced by the participants across any dose throughout the investigation. Nevertheless, these data support turkesterone supplementation is well tolerated and thus future research should build upon our analysis by employing a longitudinal supplementation regimen alongside an exercise intervention to elucidate the potential long-term and anabolism-permissive impacts of this compound on the presently-explored and additional associated parameters

Association between Total Body Composition and VO2max in Individuals with Mid-Spectrum Chronic Kidney Disease

Total body composition (TBC), a measure of body fat percentage (%BF), lean body mass (LBM), and bone mineral content (BMC), can be used as a predictor of cardiovascular fitness. Prior studies have established a relationship between TBC and VO2max in healthy individuals over 35 years of age. However, this relationship is poorly understood in chronic disease populations. PURPOSE: To assess the relationship between TBC and cardiovascular fitness in a clinical population of adults with mid-spectrum (stages G2, G3a, and G3b) chronic kidney disease (CKD). METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted among 24 subjects diagnosed with mid-spectrum CKD. Nine males and 15 females with an average age of 62.25±9.2 years and a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 54.38±9.04 ml/min/1.73m2 completed the study. Subjects completed a health screening, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan, and underwent VO2max testing on a treadmill using a modified Bruce protocol. Normality tests, descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlations, t-tests, and ANOVAs were conducted in SAS v.9.4. RESULTS: The average %BF was 36.28±8.47%, LBM was 117.16±31.32lbs., BMC was 2308.74±735.19g., and VO2max was 20.13±5.04ml/kg/min. VO2max was positively correlated with BMC and LBM (r=0.65, p=0.001 and r=0.75, p\u3c0.001, respectively) and negatively correlated with %BF (r= -0.80, p\u3c0.001). Individuals in later stages of CKD had lower LBM, BMC, and VO2max (p=0.017, p=0.001, and p=0.007, respectively), yet there was no association of CKD stage with %BF or age (p=0.210 and p=0.107). CONCLUSION: TBC was found to be significantly associated with cardiovascular fitness in the study sample. Higher BMD and LBM values were associated with higher VO2max whereas higher %BF was associated with a lower VO2max in individuals with mid-spectrum CKD. Progression of CKD stage was associated with lower LBM, BMC, and VO2max values, indicating a graded effect of CKD stage on cardiovascular fitness

Vitamin D Association with Renal Health and Filtration in Healthy Individuals Free of Cardiometabolic Diseases: A Pilot Study

The effect of vitamin D (VITD) on bone, muscle, and over health is well know in renal failure and chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, the influence of VITD on renal health and filtration (RHF) in healthy individuals is unclear. Currently, only serum creatinine concentration (sCr) methods are used to assess renal status in health individuals. However, newer biomarkers like serum Cystatin C (CyC) and urine epidermal growth factor (uEGF) show promise in evaluating baseline RHF. The impact of Vitamin D on filtration in healthy individuals of various ages is still unknown. PURPOSE: To determine the impact of VITD on RHF in healthy individuals of middle-aged status. METHODS: Thirty-six participants (n = 22 men; n = 14 women; age 37.6 + 12.4 yr; BF% 19.2 + 7.1%) agreed to participate in the research study. Blood and urine samples were obtained under standardized conditions for all individuals. VITD, CyC, uEGF, urine creatinine (uCr), uCr/uEGF ratio, sCR, and multiple estimates of glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) - modification of diet in renal disease (MDRD), CKD-EPI, CyC equations (CyC only and CyC combined with sCr) were assessed as a whole cohort and grouped (young = 20-39 yrs. (n = 22), older = 40-60 yrs. (n = 14)). Analysis was done using a paired sample t-tests, Pearson Correlation to compare VITD concentrations and markers of RHF. Linear regression analyses was performed to examine the relationship between VITD ability to predict RHF. All analyses were performed using SPSS (v. 28.0.1.1). RESULTS: There was no significant correlations found between VITD and markers of RHF in the entire cohort. Therefore, no predictive model was performed. The younger group showed strong negative correlation between VITD and MDRD (r = -0.575, p = 0.008), and that VITD was able to predict MDRD (R2 = 0.331, p = 0.008). No significant correlation observed in older group. CONCLUSIONS: VITD was correlated and able to predict a marker of RHF in healthy younger individuals, but not in older individuals. Based on the sample size and overall outcomes, continued research is needed to more accurately determine VITD effects on RHF in healthy populations