An Empirical Investigation of Self: Bridging the Gap between ACT, Mindfulness and RFT

The current programme of research had four main aims. First, we hoped to extend existing work on experimentally induced distress with non-clinical samples of adult participants (male and female college students aged approximately 18-50 years), with a particular focus on finding an appropriate preparation that would lend itself to the exploration of brief therapeutic interventions. Second, we investigated the impact of techniques referred to as self as context in terms of ameliorating distress induced by the single-sentence preparation. Third, we compared effects of mindfulness and self as context techniques on distress reduction, and subsequently investigated effects of individual components of mindfulness. Finally, we explored the potential role of concepts derived from relational frame theory (RFT) in enhancing self as context techniques. Experiment 1 systematically compared a single-sentence preparation first proposed by Rachman, Shafran, Mitchell, Trant and Teachman (1996) to a multi-sentence distress induction procedure with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 64). The experiment was interested in determining which procedure was more effective in inducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress). Visual Analogue Scales (VASs) were used to measure changes in these dependent measures. We predicted that the multi-sentence preparation would generate greater distress. However, statistical analysis including a series of mixed between within analysis of variance (ANOVA’s) demonstrated that the preparations were equally effective in inducing emotional distress. The single-sentence distress induction procedure was employed again in Experiments 2-5 (N = 90). These studies also incorporated a number of brief analogue interventions derived from acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Put simply, the research question was: Would ACT interventions that targeted acceptance, defusion, values and contact with the present moment successfully ameliorate experimentally induced distress in a non-clinical sample of undergraduates. We also investigated whether each of these individual ACT components would be enhanced by a self as context technique. Similar to Experiment 1, VASs were used to measure any changes in discomfort, anxiety and stress as a result of the interventions. We hypothesised that the combined interventions (e.g. self-enhanced acceptance) would reduce distress more effectively. However, a series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that all interventions, either stand alone components or combined with self as context, had little or no effect on levels of induced distress. In Experiments 6-8, we employed an alternative form of distress induction to previous experiments with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 80). In Experiment 6 we investigated the impact of mindfulness versus self as context techniques in reducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress) in a non-clinical sample as measured on the VASs (N = 30). We did not make any specific predictions about the outcomes, but were concerned with the possibility of differentiated outcomes based on the fact that self as context techniques encourage a focus on psychological events (i.e. thoughts), while mindfulness techniques encourage a focus on somatic events (i.e. the body). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both interventions were equally effective in reducing distress. In Experiment 7, we distinguished between two mindfulness-based exercises, physical mindfulness and verbal mindfulness, and thereafter investigated which of these would be more effective in reducing distress (e.g. discomfort) in a non-clinical sample (N = 26) of undergraduates (as measured by the VASs). Again, we refrained from making specific predictions about potentially different outcomes for the two mindfulness-based components because there are no such experimental comparisons available in the research literature to date. A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both conditions reduced distress as measured via VASs and the difference in distress levels prior and subsequent to intervention was statistically significant. In Experiment 8, we turned our attention to an investigation of effects of sequence of mindfulness exercises and to the possibility that combining physical and verbal mindfulness exercises would enhance effects observed with either exercises individually. We hypothesised that the sequence which presented physical mindfulness followed by verbal mindfulness would show greater reductions in distress (as measured by the VASs) than the reverse because this is the format employed in most mindfulness-based therapeutic packages (e.g. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that this prediction was upheld with our non-clinical sample of (N = 24), undergraduates and although both conditions resulted in reduced scores on all measures of distress, the physical-verbal sequence demonstrated superiority. Experiments 9 and 10 employed the same distress induction procedure and a similar non-clinical sample of undergraduates as Experiments 6-8 in an effort to investigate the role of RFT in ACT exercises (N = 84). In particular, in Experiment 9 we investigated distinction and hierarchical relations when targeted specifically in a self as context exercise (N = 36). We hypothesised that the hierarchical self as context intervention would show superiority over the distinction self as context condition in terms of reductions in discomfort, anxiety and stress, based on previous research by Luciano et al. (2011). A series of mixed between-within ANOVA’s demonstrated results that were consistent with this prediction as the hierarchical intervention was the more effective in reducing distress as measured by the VASs. Experiment 10 attempted to explore this issue further using a different ACT exercise with undergraduate participants (N = 48). Participants were also exposed to a practice interval placed between two exposures to the distress induction task, to determine potentially lasting impacts of the interventions. A second aspect of the research examined the extent to which a focus on the self played a specific role in the outcomes described above. Accordingly, Experiment 10 compared interventions that focused on participants’ thoughts about a specific self-criticism (i.e. self-focused) versus interventions that focused on thoughts about an inanimate object (i.e. object-focused). We hypothesised that the self-based hierarchical intervention would be the most effective in terms of distress reduction (e.g. discomfort) because it aimed to target both self-specific content and hierarchical relations. This prediction was somewhat supported as statistical analysis demonstrated that both hierarchical conditions showed superiority in terms of distress reduction compared to both distinction conditions. Furthermore, both hierarchical conditions were associated with significantly less avoidance in the second exposure to the distress induction task. In the General Discussion the current thesis discusses the implications of the research and extending the existing literature on experimental distress induction procedures, ACT, mindfulness and RFT

An Empirical Investigation of Hierarchical versus Distinction Relations in a Self-based ACT Exercise

Since its inception, ACT has placed a significant emphasis on the use of self-based techniques, and the self was defined initially through the three selves (i.e., self as content, self as process, and self as context). In addition, RFT provided a more technical account of self in terms of the deictic relational frames. However, the overlap between ACT’s mid-level terms (e.g., self as context) and RFT’s derived relations has been the subject of limited empirical scrutiny. The current study investigated the relative utility of manipulating distinction deictic versus hierarchical deictic relations in a self as context exercise designed to reduce experimentally induced emotional distress. The findings demonstrated superiority of the intervention that focused on hierarchical, rather than distinction, deictic relations in terms of reducing distress. The implications of the data for the potential overlap between ACT and RFT are discussed

Facilitating repertoires of coordination, opposition distinction, and comparison in young children with autism

According to Relational Frame Theory (rft), repertoires of derived relational responding are essential for the development of human verbal behavior. As a result, the implications of relational framing for the education of developmentally disabled populations may be immense. Although at the level of process, there appears to be little difference among specific relational frames, there is potentially a natural sequence to their emergence in typical development. However, there is very little published evidence of training children across multiple frames consecutively. The current research comprised four studies that explored an extended sequence of training and testing in the relational frames of coordination, opposition, distinction, and comparison in a sample of nine young children with autism. The results demonstrate the relative ease with which relational deficits in these areas were remediated. In addition, the relationship between outcomes on the Verbal Behavior Milestones and Placement Program-Assessment (vb-mapp) and individual relational training requirements was investigated

Do cross-national and ethnic group bullying comparisons represent reality? Testing instruments for structural equivalence and structural isomorphism

Bullying in schools is a widespread phenomenon, witnessed worldwide, with negative consequences for victims and perpetrators. Although it is an international issue, there are several issues with cross-national and cross-cultural/ethnic research that can make comparisons between countries and cultures/ethnic groups difficult including language, cultural perception, and/or methodological issues. As statistical techniques rapidly develop, there may be more scope to be statistically creative in how we assess the utility of one tool across different groups such as cultures, nations, etc. At the very least, an attempt to do this should be paramount in studies investigating different groups (e.g., from different countries) at one time. This study investigated bullying and victimization rates in a large cross-ethnic and -country comparison between adolescents from four countries and five different ethnic groups including: Israel (Jewish Israelis and Arab Palestinian Israelis), Palestine (the Gaza Strip), Germany, and Greece. A total of 3,186 school children aged 12–15 years completed self-report questionnaires of peer bullying/victimization. A stepwise data analytic approach was used to test comparability of the psychometric properties: (1) Structural equivalence contributes to the valid use of the instrument in cultural contexts other than the one for which the instrument has been developed. Structural equivalence is a necessary condition for the justification of indirect or direct comparisons between cultural groups. (2) Additionally, structural isomorphism is necessary to demonstrate that the same internal structure of the instrument applies to the cultural and individual levels. Findings support the internal structural equivalence of the questionnaire with the exception of the Palestinian sample from the Gaza Strip. Subsequently, exploratory factor analysis on the cultural level structure revealed a one-factor structure with congruence measure below 0.85. Thus, no evidence was found for internal structural isomorphism suggesting that no direct comparisons of cultural samples was justified. These results are discussed in detail and the implications for the international research community and cross-national/-ethnic comparison studies in bullying are addressed

An Empirical Investigation of Self: Bridging the Gap between ACT, Mindfulness and RFT

The current programme of research had four main aims. First, we hoped to extend existing work on experimentally induced distress with non-clinical samples of adult participants (male and female college students aged approximately 18-50 years), with a particular focus on finding an appropriate preparation that would lend itself to the exploration of brief therapeutic interventions. Second, we investigated the impact of techniques referred to as self as context in terms of ameliorating distress induced by the single-sentence preparation. Third, we compared effects of mindfulness and self as context techniques on distress reduction, and subsequently investigated effects of individual components of mindfulness. Finally, we explored the potential role of concepts derived from relational frame theory (RFT) in enhancing self as context techniques. Experiment 1 systematically compared a single-sentence preparation first proposed by Rachman, Shafran, Mitchell, Trant and Teachman (1996) to a multi-sentence distress induction procedure with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 64). The experiment was interested in determining which procedure was more effective in inducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress). Visual Analogue Scales (VASs) were used to measure changes in these dependent measures. We predicted that the multi-sentence preparation would generate greater distress. However, statistical analysis including a series of mixed between within analysis of variance (ANOVA’s) demonstrated that the preparations were equally effective in inducing emotional distress. The single-sentence distress induction procedure was employed again in Experiments 2-5 (N = 90). These studies also incorporated a number of brief analogue interventions derived from acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Put simply, the research question was: Would ACT interventions that targeted acceptance, defusion, values and contact with the present moment successfully ameliorate experimentally induced distress in a non-clinical sample of undergraduates. We also investigated whether each of these individual ACT components would be enhanced by a self as context technique. Similar to Experiment 1, VASs were used to measure any changes in discomfort, anxiety and stress as a result of the interventions. We hypothesised that the combined interventions (e.g. self-enhanced acceptance) would reduce distress more effectively. However, a series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that all interventions, either stand alone components or combined with self as context, had little or no effect on levels of induced distress. In Experiments 6-8, we employed an alternative form of distress induction to previous experiments with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 80). In Experiment 6 we investigated the impact of mindfulness versus self as context techniques in reducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress) in a non-clinical sample as measured on the VASs (N = 30). We did not make any specific predictions about the outcomes, but were concerned with the possibility of differentiated outcomes based on the fact that self as context techniques encourage a focus on psychological events (i.e. thoughts), while mindfulness techniques encourage a focus on somatic events (i.e. the body). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both interventions were equally effective in reducing distress. In Experiment 7, we distinguished between two mindfulness-based exercises, physical mindfulness and verbal mindfulness, and thereafter investigated which of these would be more effective in reducing distress (e.g. discomfort) in a non-clinical sample (N = 26) of undergraduates (as measured by the VASs). Again, we refrained from making specific predictions about potentially different outcomes for the two mindfulness-based components because there are no such experimental comparisons available in the research literature to date. A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both conditions reduced distress as measured via VASs and the difference in distress levels prior and subsequent to intervention was statistically significant. In Experiment 8, we turned our attention to an investigation of effects of sequence of mindfulness exercises and to the possibility that combining physical and verbal mindfulness exercises would enhance effects observed with either exercises individually. We hypothesised that the sequence which presented physical mindfulness followed by verbal mindfulness would show greater reductions in distress (as measured by the VASs) than the reverse because this is the format employed in most mindfulness-based therapeutic packages (e.g. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that this prediction was upheld with our non-clinical sample of (N = 24), undergraduates and although both conditions resulted in reduced scores on all measures of distress, the physical-verbal sequence demonstrated superiority. Experiments 9 and 10 employed the same distress induction procedure and a similar non-clinical sample of undergraduates as Experiments 6-8 in an effort to investigate the role of RFT in ACT exercises (N = 84). In particular, in Experiment 9 we investigated distinction and hierarchical relations when targeted specifically in a self as context exercise (N = 36). We hypothesised that the hierarchical self as context intervention would show superiority over the distinction self as context condition in terms of reductions in discomfort, anxiety and stress, based on previous research by Luciano et al. (2011). A series of mixed between-within ANOVA’s demonstrated results that were consistent with this prediction as the hierarchical intervention was the more effective in reducing distress as measured by the VASs. Experiment 10 attempted to explore this issue further using a different ACT exercise with undergraduate participants (N = 48). Participants were also exposed to a practice interval placed between two exposures to the distress induction task, to determine potentially lasting impacts of the interventions. A second aspect of the research examined the extent to which a focus on the self played a specific role in the outcomes described above. Accordingly, Experiment 10 compared interventions that focused on participants’ thoughts about a specific self-criticism (i.e. self-focused) versus interventions that focused on thoughts about an inanimate object (i.e. object-focused). We hypothesised that the self-based hierarchical intervention would be the most effective in terms of distress reduction (e.g. discomfort) because it aimed to target both self-specific content and hierarchical relations. This prediction was somewhat supported as statistical analysis demonstrated that both hierarchical conditions showed superiority in terms of distress reduction compared to both distinction conditions. Furthermore, both hierarchical conditions were associated with significantly less avoidance in the second exposure to the distress induction task. In the General Discussion the current thesis discusses the implications of the research and extending the existing literature on experimental distress induction procedures, ACT, mindfulness and RFT

An Empirical Investigation of Self: Bridging the Gap between ACT, Mindfulness and RFT

The current programme of research had four main aims. First, we hoped to extend existing work on experimentally induced distress with non-clinical samples of adult participants (male and female college students aged approximately 18-50 years), with a particular focus on finding an appropriate preparation that would lend itself to the exploration of brief therapeutic interventions. Second, we investigated the impact of techniques referred to as self as context in terms of ameliorating distress induced by the single-sentence preparation. Third, we compared effects of mindfulness and self as context techniques on distress reduction, and subsequently investigated effects of individual components of mindfulness. Finally, we explored the potential role of concepts derived from relational frame theory (RFT) in enhancing self as context techniques. Experiment 1 systematically compared a single-sentence preparation first proposed by Rachman, Shafran, Mitchell, Trant and Teachman (1996) to a multi-sentence distress induction procedure with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 64). The experiment was interested in determining which procedure was more effective in inducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress). Visual Analogue Scales (VASs) were used to measure changes in these dependent measures. We predicted that the multi-sentence preparation would generate greater distress. However, statistical analysis including a series of mixed between within analysis of variance (ANOVA’s) demonstrated that the preparations were equally effective in inducing emotional distress. The single-sentence distress induction procedure was employed again in Experiments 2-5 (N = 90). These studies also incorporated a number of brief analogue interventions derived from acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Put simply, the research question was: Would ACT interventions that targeted acceptance, defusion, values and contact with the present moment successfully ameliorate experimentally induced distress in a non-clinical sample of undergraduates. We also investigated whether each of these individual ACT components would be enhanced by a self as context technique. Similar to Experiment 1, VASs were used to measure any changes in discomfort, anxiety and stress as a result of the interventions. We hypothesised that the combined interventions (e.g. self-enhanced acceptance) would reduce distress more effectively. However, a series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that all interventions, either stand alone components or combined with self as context, had little or no effect on levels of induced distress. In Experiments 6-8, we employed an alternative form of distress induction to previous experiments with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 80). In Experiment 6 we investigated the impact of mindfulness versus self as context techniques in reducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress) in a non-clinical sample as measured on the VASs (N = 30). We did not make any specific predictions about the outcomes, but were concerned with the possibility of differentiated outcomes based on the fact that self as context techniques encourage a focus on psychological events (i.e. thoughts), while mindfulness techniques encourage a focus on somatic events (i.e. the body). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both interventions were equally effective in reducing distress. In Experiment 7, we distinguished between two mindfulness-based exercises, physical mindfulness and verbal mindfulness, and thereafter investigated which of these would be more effective in reducing distress (e.g. discomfort) in a non-clinical sample (N = 26) of undergraduates (as measured by the VASs). Again, we refrained from making specific predictions about potentially different outcomes for the two mindfulness-based components because there are no such experimental comparisons available in the research literature to date. A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both conditions reduced distress as measured via VASs and the difference in distress levels prior and subsequent to intervention was statistically significant. In Experiment 8, we turned our attention to an investigation of effects of sequence of mindfulness exercises and to the possibility that combining physical and verbal mindfulness exercises would enhance effects observed with either exercises individually. We hypothesised that the sequence which presented physical mindfulness followed by verbal mindfulness would show greater reductions in distress (as measured by the VASs) than the reverse because this is the format employed in most mindfulness-based therapeutic packages (e.g. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that this prediction was upheld with our non-clinical sample of (N = 24), undergraduates and although both conditions resulted in reduced scores on all measures of distress, the physical-verbal sequence demonstrated superiority. Experiments 9 and 10 employed the same distress induction procedure and a similar non-clinical sample of undergraduates as Experiments 6-8 in an effort to investigate the role of RFT in ACT exercises (N = 84). In particular, in Experiment 9 we investigated distinction and hierarchical relations when targeted specifically in a self as context exercise (N = 36). We hypothesised that the hierarchical self as context intervention would show superiority over the distinction self as context condition in terms of reductions in discomfort, anxiety and stress, based on previous research by Luciano et al. (2011). A series of mixed between-within ANOVA’s demonstrated results that were consistent with this prediction as the hierarchical intervention was the more effective in reducing distress as measured by the VASs. Experiment 10 attempted to explore this issue further using a different ACT exercise with undergraduate participants (N = 48). Participants were also exposed to a practice interval placed between two exposures to the distress induction task, to determine potentially lasting impacts of the interventions. A second aspect of the research examined the extent to which a focus on the self played a specific role in the outcomes described above. Accordingly, Experiment 10 compared interventions that focused on participants’ thoughts about a specific self-criticism (i.e. self-focused) versus interventions that focused on thoughts about an inanimate object (i.e. object-focused). We hypothesised that the self-based hierarchical intervention would be the most effective in terms of distress reduction (e.g. discomfort) because it aimed to target both self-specific content and hierarchical relations. This prediction was somewhat supported as statistical analysis demonstrated that both hierarchical conditions showed superiority in terms of distress reduction compared to both distinction conditions. Furthermore, both hierarchical conditions were associated with significantly less avoidance in the second exposure to the distress induction task. In the General Discussion the current thesis discusses the implications of the research and extending the existing literature on experimental distress induction procedures, ACT, mindfulness and RFT

An Empirical Investigation of Self: Bridging the Gap between ACT, Mindfulness and RFT

The current programme of research had four main aims. First, we hoped to extend existing work on experimentally induced distress with non-clinical samples of adult participants (male and female college students aged approximately 18-50 years), with a particular focus on finding an appropriate preparation that would lend itself to the exploration of brief therapeutic interventions. Second, we investigated the impact of techniques referred to as self as context in terms of ameliorating distress induced by the single-sentence preparation. Third, we compared effects of mindfulness and self as context techniques on distress reduction, and subsequently investigated effects of individual components of mindfulness. Finally, we explored the potential role of concepts derived from relational frame theory (RFT) in enhancing self as context techniques. Experiment 1 systematically compared a single-sentence preparation first proposed by Rachman, Shafran, Mitchell, Trant and Teachman (1996) to a multi-sentence distress induction procedure with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 64). The experiment was interested in determining which procedure was more effective in inducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress). Visual Analogue Scales (VASs) were used to measure changes in these dependent measures. We predicted that the multi-sentence preparation would generate greater distress. However, statistical analysis including a series of mixed between within analysis of variance (ANOVA’s) demonstrated that the preparations were equally effective in inducing emotional distress. The single-sentence distress induction procedure was employed again in Experiments 2-5 (N = 90). These studies also incorporated a number of brief analogue interventions derived from acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Put simply, the research question was: Would ACT interventions that targeted acceptance, defusion, values and contact with the present moment successfully ameliorate experimentally induced distress in a non-clinical sample of undergraduates. We also investigated whether each of these individual ACT components would be enhanced by a self as context technique. Similar to Experiment 1, VASs were used to measure any changes in discomfort, anxiety and stress as a result of the interventions. We hypothesised that the combined interventions (e.g. self-enhanced acceptance) would reduce distress more effectively. However, a series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that all interventions, either stand alone components or combined with self as context, had little or no effect on levels of induced distress. In Experiments 6-8, we employed an alternative form of distress induction to previous experiments with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 80). In Experiment 6 we investigated the impact of mindfulness versus self as context techniques in reducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress) in a non-clinical sample as measured on the VASs (N = 30). We did not make any specific predictions about the outcomes, but were concerned with the possibility of differentiated outcomes based on the fact that self as context techniques encourage a focus on psychological events (i.e. thoughts), while mindfulness techniques encourage a focus on somatic events (i.e. the body). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both interventions were equally effective in reducing distress. In Experiment 7, we distinguished between two mindfulness-based exercises, physical mindfulness and verbal mindfulness, and thereafter investigated which of these would be more effective in reducing distress (e.g. discomfort) in a non-clinical sample (N = 26) of undergraduates (as measured by the VASs). Again, we refrained from making specific predictions about potentially different outcomes for the two mindfulness-based components because there are no such experimental comparisons available in the research literature to date. A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both conditions reduced distress as measured via VASs and the difference in distress levels prior and subsequent to intervention was statistically significant. In Experiment 8, we turned our attention to an investigation of effects of sequence of mindfulness exercises and to the possibility that combining physical and verbal mindfulness exercises would enhance effects observed with either exercises individually. We hypothesised that the sequence which presented physical mindfulness followed by verbal mindfulness would show greater reductions in distress (as measured by the VASs) than the reverse because this is the format employed in most mindfulness-based therapeutic packages (e.g. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that this prediction was upheld with our non-clinical sample of (N = 24), undergraduates and although both conditions resulted in reduced scores on all measures of distress, the physical-verbal sequence demonstrated superiority. Experiments 9 and 10 employed the same distress induction procedure and a similar non-clinical sample of undergraduates as Experiments 6-8 in an effort to investigate the role of RFT in ACT exercises (N = 84). In particular, in Experiment 9 we investigated distinction and hierarchical relations when targeted specifically in a self as context exercise (N = 36). We hypothesised that the hierarchical self as context intervention would show superiority over the distinction self as context condition in terms of reductions in discomfort, anxiety and stress, based on previous research by Luciano et al. (2011). A series of mixed between-within ANOVA’s demonstrated results that were consistent with this prediction as the hierarchical intervention was the more effective in reducing distress as measured by the VASs. Experiment 10 attempted to explore this issue further using a different ACT exercise with undergraduate participants (N = 48). Participants were also exposed to a practice interval placed between two exposures to the distress induction task, to determine potentially lasting impacts of the interventions. A second aspect of the research examined the extent to which a focus on the self played a specific role in the outcomes described above. Accordingly, Experiment 10 compared interventions that focused on participants’ thoughts about a specific self-criticism (i.e. self-focused) versus interventions that focused on thoughts about an inanimate object (i.e. object-focused). We hypothesised that the self-based hierarchical intervention would be the most effective in terms of distress reduction (e.g. discomfort) because it aimed to target both self-specific content and hierarchical relations. This prediction was somewhat supported as statistical analysis demonstrated that both hierarchical conditions showed superiority in terms of distress reduction compared to both distinction conditions. Furthermore, both hierarchical conditions were associated with significantly less avoidance in the second exposure to the distress induction task. In the General Discussion the current thesis discusses the implications of the research and extending the existing literature on experimental distress induction procedures, ACT, mindfulness and RFT

An Empirical Investigation of Self: Bridging the Gap between ACT, Mindfulness and RFT

The current programme of research had four main aims. First, we hoped to extend existing work on experimentally induced distress with non-clinical samples of adult participants (male and female college students aged approximately 18-50 years), with a particular focus on finding an appropriate preparation that would lend itself to the exploration of brief therapeutic interventions. Second, we investigated the impact of techniques referred to as self as context in terms of ameliorating distress induced by the single-sentence preparation. Third, we compared effects of mindfulness and self as context techniques on distress reduction, and subsequently investigated effects of individual components of mindfulness. Finally, we explored the potential role of concepts derived from relational frame theory (RFT) in enhancing self as context techniques. Experiment 1 systematically compared a single-sentence preparation first proposed by Rachman, Shafran, Mitchell, Trant and Teachman (1996) to a multi-sentence distress induction procedure with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 64). The experiment was interested in determining which procedure was more effective in inducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress). Visual Analogue Scales (VASs) were used to measure changes in these dependent measures. We predicted that the multi-sentence preparation would generate greater distress. However, statistical analysis including a series of mixed between within analysis of variance (ANOVA’s) demonstrated that the preparations were equally effective in inducing emotional distress. The single-sentence distress induction procedure was employed again in Experiments 2-5 (N = 90). These studies also incorporated a number of brief analogue interventions derived from acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Put simply, the research question was: Would ACT interventions that targeted acceptance, defusion, values and contact with the present moment successfully ameliorate experimentally induced distress in a non-clinical sample of undergraduates. We also investigated whether each of these individual ACT components would be enhanced by a self as context technique. Similar to Experiment 1, VASs were used to measure any changes in discomfort, anxiety and stress as a result of the interventions. We hypothesised that the combined interventions (e.g. self-enhanced acceptance) would reduce distress more effectively. However, a series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that all interventions, either stand alone components or combined with self as context, had little or no effect on levels of induced distress. In Experiments 6-8, we employed an alternative form of distress induction to previous experiments with a nonclinical sample of undergraduate participants (N = 80). In Experiment 6 we investigated the impact of mindfulness versus self as context techniques in reducing distress (i.e. discomfort, anxiety and stress) in a non-clinical sample as measured on the VASs (N = 30). We did not make any specific predictions about the outcomes, but were concerned with the possibility of differentiated outcomes based on the fact that self as context techniques encourage a focus on psychological events (i.e. thoughts), while mindfulness techniques encourage a focus on somatic events (i.e. the body). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both interventions were equally effective in reducing distress. In Experiment 7, we distinguished between two mindfulness-based exercises, physical mindfulness and verbal mindfulness, and thereafter investigated which of these would be more effective in reducing distress (e.g. discomfort) in a non-clinical sample (N = 26) of undergraduates (as measured by the VASs). Again, we refrained from making specific predictions about potentially different outcomes for the two mindfulness-based components because there are no such experimental comparisons available in the research literature to date. A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that both conditions reduced distress as measured via VASs and the difference in distress levels prior and subsequent to intervention was statistically significant. In Experiment 8, we turned our attention to an investigation of effects of sequence of mindfulness exercises and to the possibility that combining physical and verbal mindfulness exercises would enhance effects observed with either exercises individually. We hypothesised that the sequence which presented physical mindfulness followed by verbal mindfulness would show greater reductions in distress (as measured by the VASs) than the reverse because this is the format employed in most mindfulness-based therapeutic packages (e.g. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction). A series of mixed between within ANOVA’s demonstrated that this prediction was upheld with our non-clinical sample of (N = 24), undergraduates and although both conditions resulted in reduced scores on all measures of distress, the physical-verbal sequence demonstrated superiority. Experiments 9 and 10 employed the same distress induction procedure and a similar non-clinical sample of undergraduates as Experiments 6-8 in an effort to investigate the role of RFT in ACT exercises (N = 84). In particular, in Experiment 9 we investigated distinction and hierarchical relations when targeted specifically in a self as context exercise (N = 36). We hypothesised that the hierarchical self as context intervention would show superiority over the distinction self as context condition in terms of reductions in discomfort, anxiety and stress, based on previous research by Luciano et al. (2011). A series of mixed between-within ANOVA’s demonstrated results that were consistent with this prediction as the hierarchical intervention was the more effective in reducing distress as measured by the VASs. Experiment 10 attempted to explore this issue further using a different ACT exercise with undergraduate participants (N = 48). Participants were also exposed to a practice interval placed between two exposures to the distress induction task, to determine potentially lasting impacts of the interventions. A second aspect of the research examined the extent to which a focus on the self played a specific role in the outcomes described above. Accordingly, Experiment 10 compared interventions that focused on participants’ thoughts about a specific self-criticism (i.e. self-focused) versus interventions that focused on thoughts about an inanimate object (i.e. object-focused). We hypothesised that the self-based hierarchical intervention would be the most effective in terms of distress reduction (e.g. discomfort) because it aimed to target both self-specific content and hierarchical relations. This prediction was somewhat supported as statistical analysis demonstrated that both hierarchical conditions showed superiority in terms of distress reduction compared to both distinction conditions. Furthermore, both hierarchical conditions were associated with significantly less avoidance in the second exposure to the distress induction task. In the General Discussion the current thesis discusses the implications of the research and extending the existing literature on experimental distress induction procedures, ACT, mindfulness and RFT

A review of cyberbullying and suggestions for online psychological therapy

AbstractInvestigations of cyberbullying are beginning to emerge in the scientific literature because of their implications for child and adolescent development. In particular, cyberbullying victimisation has been associated with similar negative consequences to traditional or face-to-face bullying such as lower academic achievement, anxiety, and sometimes even suicide. Research has also started to emerge investigating the impact of such incidences on the life of adults. The literature in this area has been steadily growing over the last decade and this review highlights the current situation in terms of relevant features and the psychological impact on victims. The selection process consisted of a comprehensive search that was conducted in January 2015 in the following databases: PsychInfo, ERIC, Web of Science and Medline. A total of 19 papers were included. We conclude with suggestions for online psychological treatment for victims and bullies as a means of coping with the distress caused from cyberbullying experiences

Do Response Options in the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) Matter? A Comparison of Contextual Relations versus Relational Coherent Indicators

Empirical analysis of features of the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure may be important to results. As such, the current research compared effects of response options that were contextually cued relational responses (Crels) versus relational coherence indicators (RCIs) across two IRAPs conducted with college student participants (N = 40). The IRAPs were similar except for the response options used, which were either “Same”/“Opposite” (Crels) versus “Accurate”/“Inaccurate” (RCIs). D-scores for both IRAPs showed the expected IRAP effect (bias). A critical difference was noted dependent upon the type of response options used: the IRAP effect was shown to be stronger when Crel response options were used. There was no statistically significant interaction effect shown between response option used and order of completion (i.e., Crel IRAP first vs. RCI IRAP first), however, there was a statistically significant interaction effect shown between type of response options used on the IRAP, order of completion, and block-order presentation (consistent trial-blocks vs. inconsistent trial blocks presented first). Findings are discussed regarding potential implications and further research