LUCAS 2015 Topsoil Survey: Presentation of dataset and results

This report accompanies the release of the LUCAS 2015 soil dataset. It presents an overview of the laboratory analysis data and provides a detailed description of the results for the EU-28 territory. The report describes the spatial variability of soil properties by land cover (LC) class and a comparative analysis of the soil properties by NUTS 2 regions. Regular monitoring provides a unique perspective on pressures affecting soils. In this respect, the soil module of the Land Use/Cover Area frame statistical Survey’ (generally referred to as LUCAS Soil) supports the specific needs of the European Commission by collecting data that characterises soil condition and health in relation to land use practices and other activities (e.g. industrial emissions) that are driven by specific policy instruments. The LUCAS Soil Module is the only mechanism that currently provides a harmonised and regular collection of soil data for the entire territory of the European Union (EU), addressing all major land cover types simultaneously, in a single sampling period (generally April – October). At the same time, the LUCAS Soil module can support further policy needs through a flexibility that permits both the collection of new field data, if required from new sampling sites, together with additional laboratory analysis. This capacity reflects a diverse policy user base and an evolving policy landscape. The drive to collect soil samples under the umbrella of LUCAS was led initially by DG Environment, who provided funding for the 2009 survey. At that time, the main LUCAS survey was planned for 23 EU Member States (MS). Bulgaria, Cyprus, Malta and Romania were excluded, while Croatia was not a MS at the time. The initial premise for the soil module was to collect a baseline dataset on a range of soil characteristics such as organic matter content, nutrient status, fertility, acidification and soil pollution (metals). An approach was developed to collect samples from 10% of the sites where field visits (i.e. verification) were to be carried out as part of the main LUCAS Survey. In 2009, this gave 235,000 possible locations for 23,500 soil samples. At the end of the survey, about 20,000 had been collected from a depth of 20 cm following a common sampling procedure. These samples were analysed according to standard analytical methods in a single laboratory for a range of physical and chemical properties. In addition, visible and near-infrared spectra were acquired for all samples. The same procedure, sampling method and analysis standards were extended in 2012 to Bulgaria and Romania, where samples were collected from about 2,000 locations. In 2015, the survey was carried out for all twenty-eight EU MS. Of the locations sampled in 2009 and 2012, 90% were maintained. The remaining 10% were substituted by new locations, including new points at altitudes above 1,000 m, which were out of scope of the LUCAS 2009 and LUCAS 2012 surveys. In addition, the soil module was extended by the JRC Enlargement and Integration Programme to Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia. Switzerland also participated following standard LUCAS protocols. Overall, 27,069 locations were selected for the soil sampling of LUCAS 2015, of which 22,631 were collected in the EU-28, with a further 1,271 samples being collected from other countries. After the removal of samples that could not be identified or mislabelled, the LUCAS 2015 Soil dataset contains 21,859 unique records. As in the previous exercises, a common sampling procedure, single laboratory, standard analytical methods were applied. Additional soil parameters that were collected from all LUCAS field points primarily to support soil erosion modelling (e.g. signs of ploughing, presence of crop residues, percentage of stones) are not presented here but are included in the main LUCAS 2015 microdata, which is made available by EUROSTAT.. The results for Switzerland and Western Balkan Countries will be presented separately. A parallel report presents an assessment of changes in soil properties between 2009 and 2015 A set of descriptive data for the soil sampling sites are also available to download from ESDAC.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Soil Degradation and Soil Quality in Western Europe: Current situation and future perspectives

Abstract: The extension and causes of soil chemical, physical and biological degradation, and of soil loss, varies greatly in different countries in Western Europe. The objective of this work was to review these issues, the strategies for soil protection, and the future perspectives for soil quality evaluation, under the light of present legislation for soil protection. Agriculture and forestry are responsible for many of them, especially for physical degradation, erosion and organic matter loss. Land take and soil sealing have increased in the last decades and can enhance these problems. In agricultural land, conservation farming, organic farming and other soil-friendly practices have been seen to have site-specific effects, depending on the characteristics of soils and the particularities of land uses and land users. No single soil management strategy suitable for all regions, soil types and soil uses exists. Except for soil contamination, specific legislation for soil protection is lacking in the region. The development of a Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection in the European Union has produced valuable information and the development of networks and databases. However, soil degradation is addressed only indirectly in environmental policies, and through the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union, which encourages farming practices supporting soil conservation. Despite these efforts, there is still a need for soil monitoring networks and decision-support systems based in soil quality optimization in the region. The pressure to European soils will continue in the future, and a clear regulatory framework is needed.JRC.H.5-Land Resources Managemen

Assessment of changes in topsoil properties in LUCAS samples between 2009/2012 and 2015 surveys

Soil delivers fundamental ecosystem services that support human well-being. These include the provision of food, feed, fuel, fibre and genetic resources, the regulation of storage, filtration and cycling of nutrients and water, cultural (aesthetic, spiritual and recreational) values and supporting the provision of all other services. Policies for sustainable land and soil management should be based on monitoring systems that are able to provide evidence of the impact of land use/land cover changes and climate change in soil condition, both in space and in time. In this context, the topsoil assessment module of the Land Use and Cover Area Frame Survey (LUCAS) is the first harmonised soil monitoring network at European Union (EU) level that uses a common sampling procedure and standard analysis methods. Eurostat has carried out the LUCAS survey every 3 years since 2006. The surveys are based on the visual assessment of environmental and structural elements of the landscape in georeferenced control points, a subsample of which is selected to be visited to collect field-based information. In 2009, a soil assessment module was added within the LUCAS survey with the scope to create a harmonised and comparable dataset of physical and chemical properties of topsoil across the EU to support policymaking. About 20,000 soil points were selected across 27 member states (except Bulgaria and Romania) based on a stratified sampling scheme with land use and terrain information as attributes. At each point, samples were collected from a depth of 20 cm using a common sampling procedure. Subsequently, the samples were analysed for several properties in a single laboratory using standard analytical methods. The same point selection procedure, sampling method and analysis methods were extended in 2012 to Bulgaria and Romania, where samples were collected for about 2,000 soil points. The LUCAS Topsoil Survey was repeated in 2015, year in which 17,613 soil points sampled in the LUCAS 2009 and 2012 surveys were revisited. Furthermore, new soil points at an altitude of 1,000 - 2,000 m were added to the survey (the altitude limit was 1,000 m in LUCAS 2009 and 2012 surveys). The soil module was also extended by the JRC to Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Republic of North Macedonia and Serbia. In total, 27,069 points were selected for the topsoil survey in 2015, of which 25,947 were located in the EU-28 MS. In this report, we provide a detailed evaluation of the LUCAS topsoil sampling and the laboratory analysis. We also assess changes in topsoil properties between LUCAS 2009/2012 and 2015 surveys based on data of paired samples (i.e. samples collected in revisited LUCAS soil points in 2009/2012 and in 2015). The ultimate goal of this report is to assess the efficacy of the LUCAS Topsoil Module for the early detection of changes in soil conditions, since this is a primary objective for scientific and policy organizations to improve their policies for a sustainable land use and management. The LUCAS spade sampling is an efficient and cost-effective method for topsoil monitoring at regional/continental scale, although a better control of litter removal in woodland and sampling depth in all LC classes is needed. When comparing sampling locations of revisited points, almost 97 % of the samples taken in 2015 were taken at a distance <100 m from their baseline locations in 2009/2012 as indicated in the sampling protocol. Three percent of the samples were taken at a distance between 100 and 400 m from one survey to the other. As a result, changes in soil properties were not significantly affected by the distance between sampling locations in the 2009/2012 and 2015 surveys. Regarding laboratory analysis, the data of the properties analysed showed a coherence from the soil point of view. Organic carbon and N levels showed a positive correlation, CaCO3 content was lower in samples were pH was below 7, and the sum of sand, silt and clay percentages was between 99 and 101 in the fraction <2 mm of all samples. Overall, OC and N levels were highest in woodland, followed by grassland and cropland in both the 2009/2012 and 2015 surveys. On the contrary, P and K levels were higher in cropland and grassland than in woodland in the surveys. Carbonate content was lowest in woodland from northern member states and highest in cropland from southern member states in both surveys. In agreement with these results, pH was lower in woodland than in cropland in both surveys. Soil properties showed large standard deviations within surveys and between surveys due to uncertainties arising from the sampling. Unfortunately, some LC classes were under sampled. Consideration should be given to increase the number of sampling sites in future surveys to ensure representative data. Overall, most of the soil properties showed limited changes between 2009 and 2015 (over the six-year period) in the 27 member states. Changes in Bulgaria and Romania were even less evident over the three-year period (from 2012 to 2015). Thus, the survey confirms that soil properties change very slowly over time. From a policy perspective, a time lapse longer than six years is necessary in order to observe small variations in soil conditions, unless a marked change has occurred due to erosion processes, extreme meteorological events or land use/cover changes. Despite uncertainties arising from the sampling, it has been possible to draw some conclusions when assessing changes in soil properties between 2009/2012 and 2015 surveys in mineral soils (i.e. where OC <120 g kg-1). — Taking the revisited points, a statistically significant increase in OC content of 3.74 % was observed in grassland over six years in the 27 member states. This is in line with the annual 0.4 % increase in the topsoil (30-40 cm) targeted by the ‘4 per 1000’ initiative. This would contribute to climate change mitigation. — Similarly, for the revisited points in cropland, a statistically significant decrease in OC content of 2.5 % was observed while points that changed from grassland to cropland over six years decreased by 11 %. This suggests that cropland soils are not working as carbon sinks. — In other land cover categories, the number of repeated points was insufficient to assess statistical significance. — No tangible changes were observed in Bulgaria and Romania over three years. — Nitrogen content increased in cropland, grassland, woodland points, and in points that changed from cropland to grassland over six years in the 27 member states. In Bulgaria and Romania, N content increased in cropland points and in points that changed from cropland to grassland and vice-versa over three years. In non-agricultural conditions, this may reflect airborne deposition of nitrogen. — Phosphorus content increased in cropland, grassland and woodland points over six years in the 27 member states. On the contrary, K content decreased in cropland points in the 27 member states. In Bulgaria and Romania, no tangible changes were observed over three years. — pH in CaCl2 was a more consistent measurement and was less affected by seasonal fluctuations of electrolyte concentration in soil solution. — pH in CaCl2 increased in cropland and woodland points, and in points that changed from woodland to shrubland over six years in the 27 member states. On the contrary, pH in CaCl2 decreased in grassland points. In Bulgaria and Romania, pH in CaCl2 decreased in grassland points over three years.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services: An EU ecosystem assessment

This report presents an ecosystem assessment covering the total land area of the EU as well as the EU marine regions. The assessment is carried out by Joint Research Centre, European Environment Agency, DG Environment, and the European Topic Centres on Biological Diversity and on Urban, Land and Soil Systems. This report constitutes a knowledge base which can support the evaluation of the 2020 biodiversity targets. It also provides a data foundation for future assessments and policy developments, in particular with respect to the ecosystem restoration agenda for the next decade (2020-2030). The report presents an analysis of the pressures and condition of terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems using a single, comparable methodology based on European data on trends of pressures and condition relative to the policy baseline 2010. The following main conclusions are drawn: - Pressures on ecosystems exhibit different trends. - Land take, atmospheric emissions of air pollutants and critical loads of nitrogen are decreasing but the absolute values of all these pressures remain too high. - Impacts from climate change on ecosystems are increasing. - Invasive alien species of union concern are observed in all ecosystems, but their impact is particularly high in urban ecosystems and grasslands. - Pressures from overfishing activities and marine pollution are still high. - In the long term, air and freshwater quality is improving. - In forests and agroecosystems, which represent over 80% of the EU territory, there are improvements in structural condition indicators (biomass, deadwood, area under organic farming) relative to the baseline year 2010 but some key bio-indicators such as tree-crown defoliation continue to increase. This indicates that ecosystem condition is not improving. - Species-related indicators show no progress or further declines, particularly in agroecosystems. The analysis of trends in ecosystem services concluded that the current potential of ecosystems to deliver timber, protection against floods, crop pollination, and nature-based recreation is equal to or lower than the baseline value for 2010. At the same time, the demand for these services has significantly increased. A lowered potential in combination with a higher demand risks to further decrease the condition of ecosystems and their contribution to human well-being. Despite the wide coverage of environmental legislation in the EU, there are still large gaps in the legal protection of ecosystems. On land, 76% of the area of terrestrial ecosystems, mainly forests, agroecosystems and urban ecosystems, are excluded from a legal designation under the Bird and Habitat Directives. Freshwater and marine ecosystems are subject to specific protection measures under the Water Framework and Marine Strategy Framework Directives. The condition of ecosystems that are under legal designation is unfavourable. More efforts are needed to bend the curve of biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation and to put ecosystems on a path to recovery. The progress that is made in certain areas such as pollution reduction, increasing air and water quality, increasing share of organic farming, the expansion of forests, and the efforts to maintain marine fish stocks at sustainable levels show that a persistent implementation of policies can be effective. These successes should encourage us to act now and to put forward an ambitious plan for the restoration of Europe’s ecosystems.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

LUCAS Soil, the largest expandable soil dataset for Europe: a review

Soil is a non-renewable resource that requires constant monitoring in order to prevent its degradation and promote its sustainable management. The “Land Use/Cover Area frame statistical Survey Soil” (LUCAS Soil) is an extensive and regular topsoil survey that is carried out across the European Union to derive policy relevant statistics on the impact of land management on soil characteristics. Approximately 45,000 soil samples have been collected from two timeframes, 2009/2012 and 2015. A new sampling round will be undertaken in2018, with new measurements foreseen. The organisation of 2018 campaign represents an opportunity to summarise past LUCAS Soil achievements and present its future objectives. In 2009/2012 and 2015, LUCAS Soil surveys targeted physio-chemical properties, including, pH, organic carbon, nutrient levels and cation exchange capacity. Data from 2009/2012 (ca. 22,000 points) and derived products (more than 20 maps) are freely available from the European Soil Data Centre website. Analyses of samples collected during 2015 are ongoing and data will be available at the end of 2017. In the 2018 LUCAS Soil campaign, additional properties, including bulk density, soil biodiversity, specific measurements for organic-rich soils, and soil erosion will be measured. Here we present the current dataset (LUCAS Soil 2009/2012 and 2015), its reuse potential and future development plans (LUCAS Soil 2018 and over). LUCAS Soil represents the largest harmonised open-access dataset of topsoil properties available for the European Union at global scale. LUCAS Soil was developed as an expandable resource, with new parameters and sampling locations being added over the successive campaigns. Data are available to the scientific community and decision makers, thus contributing to both research and the development of the land-focused policy agenda.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Distribution of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in agricultural topsoils of the European Union

Approval for glyphosate-based herbicides in the European Union (EU) is under intense debate due to concern about their effects on the environment and human health. The occurrence of glyphosate residues in European water bodies is rather well documented whereas only few, fragmented and outdated information is available for European soils. We provide the first large-scale assessment of distribution (occurrence and concentrations) of glyphosate and its main metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in EU agricultural topsoils, and estimate their potential spreading by wind and water erosion. Glyphosate and/or AMPA were present in 45% of the topsoils collected, originating from eleven countries and six crop systems, with a maximum concentration of 2 mg kg−1. Several glyphosate and AMPA hotspots were identified across the EU. Soil loss rates (obtained from recently derived European maps) were used to estimate the potential export of glyphosate and AMPA by wind and water erosion. The estimated exports, result of a conceptually simple model, clearly indicate that particulate transport can contribute to human and environmental exposure to herbicide residues. Residue threshold values in soils are urgently needed to define potential risks for soil health and off site effects related to export by wind and water erosion.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Mapping LUCAS topsoil chemical properties at European scale using Gaussian process regression

This paper presents the second part of the mapping of topsoil properties based on the Land Use and Cover Area frame Survey (LUCAS). The first part described the physical properties (Ballabio et al., 2016) while this second part includes the following chemical properties: pH, Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), calcium carbonates (CaCO3), C:N ratio, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). The LUCAS survey collected harmonised data on changes in land cover and the state of land use for the European Union (EU). Among the 270,000 land use and cover observations selected for field visit, approximately 20,000 soil samples were collected in 24 EU Member States in 2009 together with more than 2000 samples from Bulgaria and Romania in 2012. The chemical properties maps for the European Union were produced using Gaussian process regression (GPR) models. GPR was selected for its capacity to assess model uncertainty and the possibility of adding prior knowledge in the form of covariance functions to the model. The derived maps will establish baselines that will help monitor soil quality and provide guidance to agro-environmental research and policy developments in the European Union. The derived maps will establish baselines that will help monitor soil quality and provide guidance to agro-environmental research and policy developments in the European Union.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Mapping LUCAS topsoil chemical properties at European scale using Gaussian process regression

This paper presents the second part of the mapping of topsoil properties based on the Land Use and Cover Area frame Survey (LUCAS). The first part described the physical properties (Ballabio et al., 2016) while this second part includes the following chemical properties: pH, Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), calcium carbonates (CaCO3), C:N ratio, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). The LUCAS survey collected harmonised data on changes in land cover and the state of land use for the European Union (EU). Among the 270,000 land use and cover observations selected for field visit, approximately 20,000 soil samples were collected in 24 EU Member States in 2009 together with more than 2000 samples from Bulgaria and Romania in 2012. The chemical properties maps for the European Union were produced using Gaussian process regression (GPR) models. GPR was selected for its capacity to assess model uncertainty and the possibility of adding prior knowledge in the form of covariance functions to the model.The derived maps will establish baselines that will help monitor soil quality and provide guidance to agroenvironmental research and policy developments in the European Union

Distribution of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in Agricultural topsoils of the European Union

Approval for glyphosate-based herbicides in the European Union (EU) is under intense debate due to concern about their effects on the environment and human health. The occurrence of glyphosate residues in European water bodies is rather well documented whereas only few, fragmented and outdated information is available for European soils. We provide the first large-scale assessment of distribution (occurrence and concentrations) of glyphosate and its main metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in EU agricultural topsoils, and estimate their potential spreading by wind and water erosion. Glyphosate and/or AMPA were present in 45% of the topsoils collected, originating from eleven countries and six crop systems, with a maximum concentration of 2 mg kg− 1. Several glyphosate and AMPA hotspots were identified across the EU. Soil loss rates (obtained from recently derived European maps) were used to estimate the potential export of glyphosate and AMPA by wind and water erosion. The estimated exports, result of a conceptually simple model, clearly indicate that particulate transport can contribute to human and environmental exposure to herbicide residues. Residue threshold values in soils are urgently needed to define potential risks for soil health and off site effects related to export by wind and water erosion

Copper distribution in European agricultural soils: an analysis based on LUCAS soil survey

Copper (Cu) distribution in soil is influenced by climatic, geological and pedological factors. Apart from geological sources and industrial pollution, other anthropogenic sources, related to the agricultural activity, may increase copper levels in soils, especially in permanent crops such as olive groves and vineyards. This study uses 21,682 soil samples from the LUCAS topsoil survey to investigate copper distribution in the soils of 25 European Union (EU) Member States. Generalized Linear Models (GLM) were used to investigate the factors driving copper distribution in EU soils. Regression analysis shows the importance of topsoil properties, land cover and climate in estimating Cu concentration. Meanwhile, a copper regression model confirms our hypothesis that different agricultural management practices have a relevant influence on Cu concentration. Besides the traditional use of copper as a fungicide for treatments in several permanent crops, the combined effect of soil properties such as high pH, soil organic carbon and clay, with humid and wet climatic conditions favours copper accumulation in soils of vineyards and tree crops. Compared to the overall average Cu concentration of 16.85 mg kg−1, vineyards have the highest mean soil Cu concentration (49.26 mg kg−1) of all land use categories, followed by olive groves and orchards. Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) combined with kriging were used to map copper concentration in topsoils and to evidence the presence of outliers. GPR proved to be performant in predicting Cu concentration, especially in combination with kriging, accounting for 66% of Cu deviance. The derived maps are novel as they include information about the importance of topsoil properties in the copper mapping process, thus improving its accuracy. Both models highlight the influence of land management practices in copper concentration and the strong correlation between topsoil copper and vineyards