Reaching Backward and Stretching Forward: Teaching for Transfer in Law School Clinics

In thinking about education, teachers may spend more time considering what to teach than how to teach. Unfortunately, traditional teaching techniques have limited effectiveness in their ability to help students retain and apply the knowledge either in later classes or in their professional work. What, then, is the value of our teaching efforts if students are unable to transfer the ideas and skills they have learned to later situations? Teaching for transfer is important to the authors of this article, four clinical professors and one psychologist. The purpose of this article is to provide an introduction to some of the techniques that can improve the transfer of teaching. While this article focuses on applications in the law clinic, the procedures can be profitably used in doctrinal classes as well. It is the goal of the authors of this article to help you improve your teaching so that your students will understand, remember, and be able to later use what you teach them. While this may appear overly ambitious, we are not selling snake oil. Rather, we are relying on established tenets of psychology and pedagogy that have proved successful in other areas of learning.In the first section, psychologist Shaun Archer will summarize the latest research results on memory and how to best teach so that students can retain and use information. Before transferring information or ideas from a class to a new situation, one must first anchor the concept in the mind. To do this, the student must attach the new information to the existing scaffolding in the student’s memory. Attached to the wrong structure, the new information cannot easily be used in a later application. For example, if you are told that both a successful asylum application and chlorophyll contain five elements, you might be momentarily chagrined since the word “elements” is used in two very different contexts. Your mind must travel down various discrete neural pathways to make correct sense of the use of the word in each phrase. This insight from psychology is the core of teaching for transfer. Tonya Kowalski will then introduce the principles of teaching for transfer, emphasizing “reaching backward” and “stretching forward” techniques. She will then suggest applications of these procedures in clinical teaching. In reaching backward, a student thinks back to past experiences or concepts to find existing mental scaffolding that can be used to bear the weight and provide an accessible resting place for the new material that is being taught. In stretching forward, a student consciously envisions potential future applications of the material being learned. Colleen Shanahan will demonstrate backward-reaching transfer techniques for teaching students skills and knowledge, using the examples of initial client interviews, soliciting facts from witnesses, researching eviction procedures, and developing an effective oral advocacy style. Jim Kelly will provide specific examples of stretching-forward transfer techniques. These range from “hugging,” identifying very similar future applications, such as the business record litany, to “bridging,” preparing students to be able to use new foundational skills or knowledge in complex and extremely varied situations

Reaching Backward and Stretching Forward: Teaching for Transfer in Law School Clinics

In thinking about education, teachers may spend more time considering what to teach than how to teach. Unfortunately, traditional teaching techniques have limited effectiveness in their ability to help students retain and apply the knowledge either in later classes or in their professional work. What, then, is the value of our teaching efforts if students are unable to transfer the ideas and skills they have learned to later situations? Teaching for transfer is important to the authors of this article, four clinical professors and one psychologist. The purpose of this article is to provide an introduction to some of the techniques that can improve the transfer of teaching\u27s lessons. While this article focuses on applications in the law clinic, the procedures can be profitably used in doctrinal classes as well

The Effectiveness of Grade 5 Mobilizations vs. Grade 1-4 Mobilizations on Mechanical Neck Pain: A Clinically Appraised Topic

• From 2000 to 2010, mechanical neck pain (MNP) prevalence ranged from 30% to 50% in adults. Other data suggests that 46% to 54% of every adult will experience some form of neck pain during their lives. • Non-thrust mobilizations (NTM) and Thrust mobilizations (TM) are among the common interventions used in manual therapy in treatment of MNP. • The evidence accumulated for this clinically appraised topic (CAT) suggests high clinical variability among the effectiveness in NTM and TM among adults with mechanical neck pain

Mifepristone increases mRNA translation rate, triggers the unfolded protein response, increases autophagic flux, and kills ovarian cancer cells in combination with proteasome or lysosome inhibitors

The synthetic steroid mifepristone blocks the growth of ovarian cancer cells, yet the mechanism driving such effect is not entirely understood. Unbiased genomic and proteomic screenings using ovarian cancer cell lines of different genetic backgrounds and sensitivities to platinum led to the identification of two key genes upregulated by mifepristone and involved in the unfolded protein response (UPR): the master chaperone of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), glucose regulated protein (GRP) of 78 kDa, and the CCAAT/enhancer binding protein homologous transcription factor (CHOP). GRP78 and CHOP were upregulated by mifepristone in ovarian cancer cells regardless of p53 status and platinum sensitivity. Further studies revealed that the three UPR-associated pathways, PERK, IRE1α, and ATF6, were activated by mifepristone. Also, the synthetic steroid acutely increased mRNA translation rate, which, if prevented, abrogated the splicing of XBP1 mRNA, a non-translatable readout of IRE1α activation. Moreover, mifepristone increased LC3-II levels due to increased autophagic flux. When the autophagic–lysosomal pathway was inhibited with chloroquine, mifepristone was lethal to the cells. Lastly, doses of proteasome inhibitors that are inadequate to block the activity of the proteasomes, caused cell death when combined with mifepristone; this phenotype was accompanied by accumulation of poly-ubiquitinated proteins denoting proteasome inhibition. The stimulation by mifepristone of ER stress and autophagic flux offers a therapeutic opportunity for utilizing this compound to sensitize ovarian cancer cells to proteasome or lysosome inhibitors.Fil: Zhang, Lei. University Of South Dakota; Estados UnidosFil: Hapon, María Belén. University Of South Dakota; Estados Unidos. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto de Medicina y Biología Experimental de Cuyo; ArgentinaFil: Goyeneche, Alicia A.. University Of South Dakota; Estados Unidos. McGill University; CanadáFil: Srinivasan, Rekha. University Of South Dakota; Estados UnidosFil: Gamarra Luques, Carlos Diego. University Of South Dakota; Estados Unidos. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mendoza. Instituto de Medicina y Biología Experimental de Cuyo; ArgentinaFil: Callegari, Eduardo A.. University Of South Dakota; Estados UnidosFil: Drappeau, Donis D.. University Of South Dakota; Estados UnidosFil: Terpstra, Erin J.. University Of South Dakota; Estados UnidosFil: Pan, Bo. University Of South Dakota; Estados UnidosFil: Knapp, Jennifer R.. University of Kansas; Estados UnidosFil: Chien, Jeremy. University of Kansas; Estados UnidosFil: Wang, Xuejun. University Of South Dakota; Estados UnidosFil: Eyster, Kathleen M.. University Of South Dakota; Estados UnidosFil: Telleria, Carlos Marcelo. University Of South Dakota; Estados Unidos. McGill University; Canadá. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentin

The Vibrational Energy Levels and Specific Heat of Ethylene

In a recent review of the experimental infra-red and Raman spectra of ethylene and tetradeuteroethylene [1], Conn and Sutherland have succeeded in giving very reasonable estimates of the positions of the four fundamental lelvels associated with the "rocking frequencies" of the methylene groups in C2H4. They have at the same time revised the previous estimate of the position of the "torisional" lelvel [2] to 700 cm^-1, for reasons which are in our opinion inadequate, and with results which prove to be unsatisfactory. In particular, as they themselves remark, the calculated heat capacities then become too large. We wish to point out that a return to the Bonner assignment of this level not only yields a more reasonable explanation of the weak combination and harmonic lines in the Raman spectra, but also leads to a theoretical heat capacity which is in good agreement with the existing measured values [3] and with new experimental values recently obtained in these Laboratories