The block-design monetary reward task employed in the current study.

<p>Participants were instructed to guess whether a number was low or high and to respond to win outcomes.</p

Differences in Function of Reward Circuitry between Adults with Alcohol Dependence and Healthy Control Adults.

<p><i>Note</i>: Results are from region-of-interest analyses focusing on the OFC, mPFC, DLPFC, and ventral striatum. Analyses were thresholded at p_corrected<0.05 using AlphaSim. <i>df</i> = 135. The contrast generated from the reward task was win > loss. Cluster size is in voxels. There were no regions for which (1) alcohol dependent adults exhibited greater response than healthy adults or (2) less negative functional connectivity with the accumbens than healthy adults. There were null findings for positive functional connectivity. OFC: orbitofrontal cortex. mPFC: medial prefrontal cortex. DLPFC: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.</p

Association of Alcohol Dependent Adults' Drinking Characteristics with Function in Reward Circuitry.

<p><i>Note</i>: Analyses were thresholded at p_corrected<0.05 using AlphaSim and were constrained using findings for group differences in which the alcohol dependent group exhibited less response than the healthy control group. The contrast generated from the reward task was win > loss. Age was included as a covariate in model of frequency of use. Cluster size is in voxels. mPFC: medial prefrontal cortex.</p

Alcohol dependent adults with a family history of alcohol use disorders exhibited less medial prefrontal response to monetary win vs. loss.

<p>The boxplot illustrates findings by depicting mean BOLD response across the entire indicated functional cluster, by family history group.</p

Alcohol dependent adults exhibited stronger negative functional connectivity than healthy adults between the bilateral nucleus accumbens and the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (left), medial prefrontal cortex (center), and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (right) during the receipt of monetary reward.

<p>Boxplots illustrate findings by depicting mean functional connectivity across the entire indicated functional cluster for each region, by group.</p

Sample Characteristics.

<p><i>Note</i>: All participants in the alcohol dependent group met DSM-IV criteria for alcohol dependence but had undergone monitored abstinence prior to participating. Severity of alcohol dependence was measured with the Alcohol Dependence Scale <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0094640#pone.0094640-Skinner1" target="_blank">[62]</a>. All daily smokers met criteria for nicotine dependence. Family history reflects alcoholism in any first- or second-degree relatives. Groups did not differ significantly for any demographic characteristics. N/A: other than confirming the absence of alcohol use disorders, we did not assess drinking behavior and drinking history in the healthy control group.</p

Alcohol dependent adults exhibited less response to monetary win vs. loss than healthy adults in three prefrontal regions—the medial prefrontal cortex (top right panel), the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (bottom panel, left boxplot), and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (bottom panel, right boxplot)—as well as the ventral striatum (top left).

<p>Boxplots illustrate findings by depicting mean BOLD response across the entire indicated functional cluster for each region, by group.</p

Demographic characteristics of 85 normally developing adolescents, by sex.

<p>Demographics from 85 participating adolescent boys and girls. Demographics are tabulated for girls (TOP) and boys (MIDDLE) as data from each sex was analyzed separately in some statistical tests. Sex differences (BOTTOM) in key demographics of participating boys and girls are tabulated. A one-tailed, two-independent sample t-test was used to calculate sex differences in TS. Two-tailed, two-independent sample t-tests were used to calculate sex differences in age and circulating testosterone.</p>*<p>denotes significance (p<0.05).</p

Results from correlating TES levels with thickness, independent of age in boys and girls.

<p>Top of figure shows results of analysis in boys. Bottom of figure shows results of analysis in girls. Left side of figure shows results from the left hemisphere. Green circles indicate regions that survive correction for multiple comparisons using false discovery rate (FDR). Regions surviving FDR correction in boys include the right lingual gyrus. Regions surviving FDR correction in girls include the left inferior parietal lobule, calcarine sulcus, right middle temporal gyrus and lingual gyrus.</p

Results from Sex x TES-Thickness interaction.

<p>Left side of the figure contains results from the left hemisphere. Green circles indicate regions that survived correction for multiple comparisons using false discovery rate (FDR). Scatterplots represent results extracted from center of significant portion in region indicated. Boys are plotted in blue. Girls are plotted in red. Regions plotted include the left dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (L DLPFC), middle temporal gyrus (L MTG), inferior parietal lobule (L IPL), calcarine sulcus (L Calcarine), posterior cingulate gyrus (L Post Cingulate), right dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (R DLPFC), posterior cingulate gyrus (R Post Cingulate), and lingual gyrus (R Lingual Gyrus). Regions surviving FDR include the left inferior parietal lobule, middle temporal gyrus, calcarine sulcus, and right lingual gyrus.</p