Is Private Education Worth it? Evidence from the Free Primary Education Reform in Kenya

In 2003, Kenya introduced a nationwide Free Primary Education (FPE) reform, abolishing school fees in all public primary schools. As a result, enrolment rates in public primary schools rose by 15 percent, putting significant pressure on the educational system. Overcrowding and lack of school material caused many parents to turn to private school alternatives. Using a nationally representative cross- sectional household survey, I exploit intra-household variation in terms of school enrolment to measure private versus public school effectiveness in terms of math, English and Swahili test scores. My findings suggest that, on average, private school students score 18, 23 and 21 percentage points of a standard deviation higher than public school students, respectively. As my results are likely to be exposed to a selection bias stemming from high-achieving students being sorted into fee-charging private schools, I include household fixed effects and an extensive set of household-related controls. Moreover, I prove that when attempting to control for such sorting effects, half of the effect disappears. I thus argue that the remaining effect can be interpreted as evidence of private schools being more effective than public schools

Oil and Development - A Formula for Sustained Economic Growth?

The purpose of our study is to determine the importance of oil exports in relation to GDP in countries located in Sub-Saharan Africa when it comes to promoting economic growth. Due to the fact that oil accounts for approximately 40 percent of the world’s total energy production, and is predicted to do so for at least 45 more years to come, we found this a highly relevant topic to look into. At the moment, Sub-Saharan Africa is in the middle of an oil-boom. Eastern and Western Africa have become promising exploration areas and thus attracted a lot of interest all around the globe. Therefore, we chose to include 14 Sub-Saharan African countries in our econometric study. We look at how the value of oil exports as a ratio of GDP affects economic growth in these countries during a time period of 27 years, stretching from 1983- 2010. Our hypothesis deals with the presence of a “Resource Curse”, stipulating that an economy which is overly dependent on oil tends to lead to none, or negative, economic growth. With this report, we conclude that an increase in the ratio of oil exports to GDP will generate higher economic growth in our chosen Sub-Saharan African countries. However, we find evidence against a “Resource Curse” taking place in the region. On the other hand, as it is a relatively under-developed region there is still a possibility that the oil sector has yet to gain enough influence in many economies to actually suffer the consequences of the phenomena. Perhaps this could be something for these countries to take into account as they become more reliant on oil as a means of production

Temporal expression and cellular origin of CC chemokine receptors CCR1, CCR2 and CCR5 in the central nervous system: insight into mechanisms of MOG-induced EAE

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>The CC chemokine receptors CCR1, CCR2 and CCR5 are critical for the recruitment of mononuclear phagocytes to the central nervous system (CNS) in multiple sclerosis (MS) and other neuroinflammatory diseases. Mononuclear phagocytes are effector cells capable of phagocytosing myelin and damaging axons. In this study, we characterize the regional, temporal and cellular expression of CCR1, CCR2 and CCR5 mRNA in the spinal cord of rats with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (MOG-EAE). While resembling human MS, this animal model allows unique access to CNS-tissue from various time-points of relapsing neuroinflammation and from various lesional stages: early active, late active, and inactive completely demyelinated lesions.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>The expression of CCR1, CCR2 and CCR5 mRNA was studied with <it>in situ </it>hybridization using radio labelled cRNA probes in combination with immunohistochemical staining for phenotypic cell markers. Spinal cord sections from healthy rats and rats with MOG-EAE (acute phase, remission phase, relapse phase) were analysed. In defined lesion stages, the number of cells expressing CCR1, CCR2 and CCR5 mRNA was determined. Data were statistically analysed by the nonparametric Mann-Whitney U test.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>In MOG-EAE rats, extensive up-regulation of CCR1 and CCR5 mRNA, and moderate up-regulation of CCR2 mRNA, was found in the spinal cord during episodes of active inflammation and demyelination. Double staining with phenotypic cell markers identified the chemokine receptor mRNA-expressing cells as macrophages/microglia. Expression of all three receptors was substantially reduced during clinical remission, coinciding with diminished inflammation and demyelination in the spinal cord. Healthy control rats did not show any detectable expression of CCR1, CCR2 or CCR5 mRNA in the spinal cord.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Our results demonstrate that the acute and chronic-relapsing phases of MOG-EAE are associated with distinct expression of CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5 mRNA by cells of the macrophage/microglia lineage within the CNS lesions. These data support the notion that CCR1, CCR2 and CCR5 mediate recruitment of both infiltrating macrophages and resident microglia to sites of CNS inflammation. Detailed knowledge of expression patterns is crucial for the understanding of therapeutic modulation and the validation of CCR1, CCR2 and CCR5 as feasible targets for therapeutic intervention in MS.</p

CX(3)CL1 (fractalkine) and CX(3)CR1 expression in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: kinetics and cellular origin

BACKGROUND: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS). It is associated with local activation of microglia and astroglia, infiltration of activated macrophages and T cells, active degradation of myelin and damage to axons and neurons. The proposed role for CX(3)CL1 (fractalkine) in the control of microglia activation and leukocyte infiltration places this chemokine and its receptor CX(3)CR1 in a potentially strategic position to control key aspects in the pathological events that are associated with development of brain lesions in MS. In this study, we examine this hypothesis by analyzing the distribution, kinetics, regulation and cellular origin of CX(3)CL1 and CX(3)CR1 mRNA expression in the CNS of rats with an experimentally induced MS-like disease, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-induced autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). METHODS: The expression of CX(3)CL1 and its receptor CX(3)CR1 was studied with in situ hybridization histochemical detection of their mRNA with radio labeled cRNA probes in combination with immunohistochemical staining of phenotypic cell markers. Both healthy rat brains and brains from rats with MOG EAE were analyzed. In defined lesional stages of MOG EAE, the number of CX(3)CR1 mRNA-expressing cells and the intensity of the in situ hybridization signal were determined by image analysis. Data were statistically evaluated by ANOVA, followed by Tukey\primes multiple comparison test. RESULTS: Expression of CX(3)CL1 mRNA was present within neuronal-like cells located throughout the neuraxis of the healthy rat. Expression of CX(3)CL1 remained unaltered in the CNS of rats with MOG-induced EAE, with the exception of an induced expression in astrocytes within inflammatory lesions. Notably, the brain vasculature of healthy and encephalitic animals did not exhibit signs of CX(3)CL1 mRNA expression. The receptor, CX(3)CR1, was expressed by microglial cells in all regions of the healthy brain. Induction of MOG-induced EAE was associated with a distinct accumulation of CX(3)CR1 mRNA expressing cells within the inflammatory brain lesions, the great majority of which stained positive for markers of the microglia-macrophage lineage. Analysis in time-staged brain lesions revealed elevated levels of CX(3)CR1 mRNA in microglia in the periplaque zone, as well as a dramatically enhanced accumulation of CX(3)CR1 expressing cells within the early-active, late-active and inactive, demyelinated lesions. CONCLUSION: Our data demonstrate constitutive and regulated expression of the chemokine CX(3)CL1 and its receptor CX(3)CR1 by neurons/astrocytes and microglia, respectively, within the normal and inflamed rat brain. Our findings propose a mechanism by which neurons and reactive astrocytes may control migration and function of the surrounding microglia. In addition, the accumulation of CX(3)CR1 expressing cells other than microglia within the inflammatory brain lesions indicate a possible role for CX(3)CL1 in controlling invasion of peripheral leucocytes to the brain

Genetic regulation of, and autoimmunity in, myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease of the central nervous system (CNS) with inflammation and plaques of demyelination. This thesis examines the genetic and immunological requirements or rat experiment autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS, to display both inflammatory and demyelinated CNS lesions with chronic and/or relapsing-remitting disease courses. Immunization of DA and LEW.AV 1 rats with the recombinant extracellular part (amino acids 1- 125) of the minor myelin component myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (rMOG) in adjuvant leads to the expansion of MOG-specific T cells and anti-MOG antibodies and focal CNS plaques of monocyte-macrophage and T cell infiltration, accompanied by demyelination. Screening of a panel of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) congenic LEW rats with a constant immunization protocol revealed that the MHC haplotype determined the degree of disease susceptibility, the clinical course, the cellular composition of CNS lesions and the recruitment of MOG-specific T- and B-cells. Titration of the immunization protocol demonstrated that the MHC determined the threshold for disease induction, paralleled by the appearance of anti-MOG antibodies. Use of intra-MHC recombinant rats genetically mapped major MHC effects to the MHC class II. Non-MHC genes determined T cell effector functions and could abrogate disease in MHC RT.AV1 rats with PVG and ACI backgrounds. In a (DA x ACI) F2 intercross, microsatellitebased genome screening identified a locus on rat chromosome (RNO) 18 linked to demyelination. Regulating loci previously identified in experimental arthritis models were mapped to RNO 10 and 12. MOG-peptide reactive effector lymphocytes were enumerated as interferon gamma (IFN[gamma])- secreting peripheral blood lymphocytes. MOG peptides 38-60, 63-87, 76-100, 89-113, 162-178 and 168-182 induced more (IFN[gamma] secreting lymphocytes than background levels of (IFN[gamma])- secreting lymphocytes in DR2(15)+ MS patients, but not in DR2(15)+ healthy controls. MOG peptide 63-87 induced a weak proliferative response in a subset of MS patients, which was blocked by anti-DQ/DR/DP antibodies. Higher numbers of spontaneously IFN[gamma] mRNA expressing CD4+ or CD8+ peripheral blood lymphocytes were detected by combined in situ hybridization - immunocytochemistry in another group of MS patients compared to healthy controls. Both CD4+ and CD8+ IFN[gamma] mRNA expressing cells were enriched in the cerebrospinal fluid as compared to the peripheral blood of MS patients. In conclusion, there are activated CD4+ IFN[gamma]-producing blood and CSF lymphocytes in MS patients. Some of the lymphocytes are MOG-specific, recognizing several MOG epitopes. Depending on MHC haplotype and non-MHC genes, rMOG-immunization results in focal inflammation and demyelination in rats, imitating MS. Major MHC influences were genetically mapped to MHC class 11, while a non-MHC locus regulating demyelination was mapped to RNO 18

The Impact of Pre-Primary Enrolment on Maternal Labour Supply in South Africa

I provide evidence on the impact of pre-primary school expansion on maternal labour supply in the context of South Africa. I draw on administrative data from the South African National Census in 2001 and 2011, and a Community Survey in 2007, to extract household information. My identification strategy exploits the staggered timing and intensity in the expansion of pre-primary school facilities across municipalities in an instrumental-variables regression. I find a robust impact from the implicit child care subsidy induced by the expansion on maternal labour supply ranging from 10.4% to 13.7%. My findings suggest that early childhood development reforms aimed at raising pre-primary enrolment rates can go beyond the scope of the child, raising incentives for women to actively take part in the labour market

Ledarskap i kristider : En studie om företagsledares agerande och möjlighetsskapande till följd av Rysslands invasion av Ukraina

Kriser är ett ofta nämnt begrepp i media, inom organisationer och i dagligt tal bland människor. Begreppet har speciellt brukats flitigt under de senaste åren till följd av Covid-19 pandemin och Rysslands invasion av Ukraina vilket väckt forskarna i den här studiens nyfikenhet för begreppet. Hur man kan hantera en oförutsägbara extern kris som företagsledare i en organisation är inget som de flesta ledarna är bekanta eller bekväma med. Krishantering är en mycket större och viktigare del än vad många tror av det dagliga arbetet för en företagsledare för att organisationen ska överleva och gå starka ur den turbulenta verkligheten som företaget ställs inför. Syftet med studien är att skapa förståelse för hur en företagsledare kan agera och arbeta för att minska effekterna av oväntade kriser, samt vad ledaren kan göra för att hitta möjligheter i snabbt förändrande förhållanden. En kvalitativ metod har tillämpats i studien där fem semistrukturerade intervjuer har verkställts löpande under forskningen med fem olika individer i ledande befattningar i svenska tillverkningsföretag. Forskarna har nyttjat en induktiv ansats, där teorin baseras på utfallet av det empiriska materialet. Studien visade att kriser skapar erfarenheter för ledarna, vilket förbereder ledarna bättre på liknande framtida utmaningar. Kriser innebär även förändring vilket kan resultera i möjligheter när det sker en omställning på marknader