Sanitary practices and occurrence of zoonotic conditions in cattle at slaughter in Morogoro Municipality, Tanzania: implications for public health

As meat consumption is increasing worldwide to cover for protein demands, also raise concerns and challenges regarding meat hygiene and safety. The current one year follow up study aimed at investigating on sanitary practices and occurrence of zoonotic conditions, during post-mortem examination, in cattle at slaughter in Morogoro Municipality abattoir. Sanitary practices were assessed through direct observation where as routine post-mortem inspection procedures were employed to detect zoonotic conditions in cattle at slaughter. During the study period a total of 30,713 cattle were slaughtered and inspected at the abattoir. Results revealed poor hygienic practices at the level of abattoir surrounding, the slaughter operation area, personnel as well as meat vans. Whole carcasses, lungs, livers, hearts and heads were condemned due to zoonotic conditions at rates of 0.026%, 1.96%, 1.61%, 0.02% and 0.21% respectively. Bovine tuberculosis, Cysticercus bovis cysts, fasciolosis and hydatidosis were the responsible zoonotic conditions for the condemnations. Bovine tuberculosis was a leading zoonotic cause of condemnations accounting for 95.7% of lungs and 100% of all head and carcass condemnations. Cysticercus bovis cysts were ranking the second in serving as causes of condemnations closely followed by fasciolosis and lastly hydatidosis. Occurrence of disease conditions with zoonotic implication in cattle at slaughter, meant for human consumption, may pose significant economic and public health risks to especially disaster-prone marginalized communities. Thus, there is a need to introduce appropriate control measures of livestock diseases to minimize the rate of infection; and eventually reduce economic losses and safeguard public health

Evidence of Carriage of Antimicrobial Resistant Salmonella species of Public Health and Veterinary Significance in the Intestines of House Crows \ud (Corvus splendens) in Tanzania

The Indian house crow, Corvus splendens (Vieillot) was introduced in Zanzibar, Tanzania by the British and immigrants from India in 1897 to help clean the town. The crow is responsible for polluting the environment, water sources and human surroundings by their droppings and the rubbish they carry. This behavior has led to concern that, the crows may be responsible for the spread of certain pathogens including Salmonella and their persistence in the environment.Given the zoonotic potential of Salmonella, the main aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella infections in Indian house crows and to determine if the isolates were similar to those associated with disease in livestock or humans. Methods: Indian house crows were lured with meat and blood baits to land into the crow live-trap set at the Mabibo compound of the National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR) in Dar es Salaam city in Tanzania. A total of 100 house crows were captured, humanely sacrificed, and their small and large intestines were obtained by using aseptic techniques for microbiological investigations. Culture technique was employed to detect the presence of Salmonella in intestinal contents; and preliminary identification of the isolates was based on colonial characteristics on selective media and microscopic examination of smears following Gram staining. Confirmation of Salmonella species was done by biochemical tests. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done by using the disc diffusion method on Mueller Hinton agar. Eight isolates were identified by standard microbiological techniques as Salmonella spp. (6 suggestive of Salmonella gallinarum and 2 suggestive of S. Typhi). All isolates were found to be susceptible to ciprofloxacin but resistant to amoxicillin. Lower levels of susceptibility were noted for chloramphenicol and ceftriaxone. Our results demonstrate the presence of antimicrobial resistant Salmonella spp. in the Indian house crows’ population and provide an indication of potential public and poultry health risks associated with these birds in the coastal area. The occurrence of antibiotic resistant S. Typhi and S. gallinarum among Indian house crows has both veterinary and public health consequences as they may be transmitted to poultry and humans. This therefore provides further rationale for the public action on eradicating the house crows

Ecological and epidemiological findings associated with zoonotic rabies outbreaks and control in Moshi, Tanzania, 2017–2018

Approximately 1500 people die annually due to rabies in the United Republic of Tanzania. Moshi, in the Kilimanjaro Region, reported sporadic cases of human rabies between 2017 and 2018. In response and following a One Health approach, we implemented surveillance, monitoring, as well as a mass vaccinations of domestic pets concurrently in >150 villages, achieving a 74.5% vaccination coverage (n = 29, 885 dogs and cats) by September 2018. As of April 2019, no single human or animal case has been recorded. We have observed a disparity between awareness and knowledge levels of community members on rabies epidemiology. Self-adherence to protective rabies vaccination in animals was poor due to the challenges of costs and distances to vaccination centers, among others. Incidence of dog bites was high and only a fraction (65%) of dog bite victims (humans) received post-exposure prophylaxis. A high proportion of unvaccinated dogs and cats and the relative intense interactions with wild dog species at interfaces were the risk factors for seropositivity to rabies virus infection in dogs. A percentage of the previously vaccinated dogs remained unimmunized and some unvaccinated dogs were seropositive. Evidence of community engagement and multi-coordinated implementation of One Health in Moshi serves as an example of best practice in tackling zoonotic diseases using multi-level government e orts. The district-level establishment of the One Health rapid response team (OHRRT), implementation of a carefully structured routine vaccination campaign, improved health education, and the implementation of barriers between domestic animals and wildlife at the interfaces are necessary to reduce the burden of rabies in Moshi and communities with similar profiles.The USAID funded project—OSRO/GLO/507/USA on Global Health Security Agenda for the control of zoonosis in Africa.http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerpham2020Veterinary Tropical Disease

Prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Mbozi and Mbeya rural districts, Mbeya Tanzania

An epidemiological survey was conducted between November and December 2007 in 30 randomly selected villages and four slaughterslabs in Mbozi and Mbeya Rural districts, southern Tanzania, to determine the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis. Fifteen villages and three slaughterslabs were from Mbozi and fifteen villages and one slaughterslab were from Mbeya Rural. A total of 600 live pigs (300 in each district) of different sex and age categories were randomly selected from smallholder pig-keeping households and subjected to lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA tests. Postmortem examination was performed in pigs slaughtered in official slaughterslabs and local brew clubs. Questionnaire survey and direct observations were used to investigate potential factors related to transmission of T. solium. The overall prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Mbozi district was 11.7% (95% CI = 8.5-15.8%) and 32% (95% CI: 27- 37.5%) based on lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA, respectively. In Mbeya Rural district, the prevalences were 6% (95% CI: 3.8-9.3%) and 30.7% (95% CI: 25.8- 36.1%), by lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA tests, respectively. The agreement between the two tests was poor (κ < 40%). There were no significant differences in the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in different age and sex categories of pigs. None of the 805 pigs slaughtered at official slaughterslabs was infected with cysticercosis based on post-mortem inspection. However, of those slaughtered at local brew clubs, 8.2% (n=437) in Mbozi district and 10.8% (n=74) in Mbeya Rural were positive for cysticercosis. Potential risk factors for porcine cysticercosis in the districts included poor pig management, poor sanitary practices, lack of knowledge on the transmission of T. solium, and lack of meat inspection services. This study recommends educational campaigns in the study communities on the epidemiology of the disease, and subsequent revision of the current regulatory framework for pig trade and pork inspection to safeguard public health and improve livelihoods

Molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance of thermophilic campylobacter infections in humans and animals in Tanzania

PhD ThesisMembers of the genus Campylobacter are known to cause more cases of human gastrointestinal illness than any other bacterium worldwide. The organisms exist as normal flora in the intestinal tracts of domestic and wild animals, more so in avian species. Humans acquire Campylobacter infections from contaminated animal products, particularly poultry meat, either directly or through cross-contamination of other food products. Human infections are mostly attributed to Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli, the former causing a larger proportion (85-90%) of all cases reported. In addition to infections, campylobacteriosis is also associated with the emerging threat of antimicrobial resistance as evidenced in isolates derived from different sources. An accurate picture of the epidemiology of infections caused by Campylobacter and other aetiological agents is lacking in developing countries due to the absence of regular surveillance programmes. Consequently the present study was conducted in Morogoro Municipality, Eastern Tanzania, to determine the molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance of thermophilic Campylobacter isolates from humans and animals. Specific objectives were; 1) To establish the prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter infections in humans and animals, 2) To determine the genetic relatedness of chicken and human derived thermophilic Campylobacter isolates using DNA-based typing methods, 3) To evaluate the antimicrobial resistance patterns in thermophilic Campylobacter isolates derived from humans and animals; and 4) To identify risk factors for thermophilic Campylobacter infections in humans. Stool samples were collected from 1195 human subjects; and fecal samples from 1511 farm animals, 466 laboratory animals and 112 wild birds (Indian house crows). Farm animals constituted chickens (n=1267), cattle (n=98), goats (n=81), sheep (n=57), horses (n=5) and camels (n=3); whereas laboratory animals were composed of guinea pigs (Cavia porcelllus, n= 30), mice (Mus musculus, n=160), rabbits (Oryctulagusiii cuniculus, n=34) and rats (Rattus rattus, n=242). The Cape Town protocol was used for isolation of thermophilic Campylobacter from stool and fecal samples. Campylobacter isolates were identified by phenotypic and molecular techniques. The isolates were tested for resistance against several antimicrobial agents using the disc diffusion method. Risk factors for human infections with thermophilic Campylobacter were determined in an unmatched case control study. Selected human and chicken derived Campylobacter jejuni isolates were genotyped using flagellin A gene sequencing. In humans the prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter was 11.4% (n=1195). Symptomatic (12.9%) and young individuals (16.7%) were more infected than asymptomatic (6.7%) and adults (10%), respectively. Most (84.6%) of the isolates were C. jejuni and the remaining were C. coli; and the difference was statistically significant at p≤0.05. Isolates had highest resistance (95.6%) for colistin sulphate and lowest for ciprofloxacin (22.1%). Proportions of resistant isolates for other antibiotics (azithromycin, erythromycin, tetracycline, cephalethin, gentamycin, nalidixic acid, ampicillin, amoxycillin, norfloxacin and chloramphenicol) ranged from 44.1% to 89%. Human infections with thermophilic Campylobacter were associated with young age; and consumption of chicken meat, barbecue and pre-prepared salad. In avians, thermophilic Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 44.0% and 20.5% of the sampled chickens and crows respectively. The majority of isolates from both chickens (87.6%) and crows (56.5%) were C. jejuni and the remaining were C. coli. The observed difference in proportions of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates was statistically significant (p≤0.05) in chickens but not in house crows. Chicken isolates had highest resistance to Colistin sulphate whereas crow isolates showed highest resistance to azithromycin and erythromycin. Lowest resistance was observed for gentamycin and ciprofloxacin for crow and chicken isolates respectively. Among chicken isolates significantly high proportions of C. coli were resistant to gentamycin, cephalothin, tetracycline, colistin sulphate and chloramphenical. On the other hand a high proportion C. jejuni isolates were resistant toiv nalidixic acid. Crow derived C. jejuni had significantly higher resistance to nalidixic acid, cephalothin and ciprofloxacin than C. coli isolates from the same hosts. Among farm animals thermophilic Campylobacter were detected from 18 (31.6%) sheep and 3/5 (60%) of horses. Of the isolates 12 (57%) were C. jejuni; the remaining (43%) were C. coli. Of the laboratory animals 8 (26.7%) guinea pigs and 3 (1.2%) rats were colonized with Campylobacter. Four isolates from the guinea pigs were C. jejuni and the other 4 were C. coli. From the rats two isolates were C. jejuni and one was C. coli. The isolates showed high levels of antimicrobial resistance to erythromycin, norfloxacin colistin sulphate and nalidixic acid in ascending order; whereas low levels of resistance were observed for ciprofloxacin and gentamycin. Out of 55 sequenced isolates obtained from sporadic cases of human illness and different categories of chickens, nine different flaA types (7, 36, 41, 51, 61, 62, 64, 105 and 111) were detected. Both C. jejuni isolates from humans and chickens displayed a high degree of genetic diversity thereby suggesting weak clonality among the tested isolates. Genetic relatedness of some isolates from human and avian sources was however evident as on phylogenetic analysis some clusters contained both human and chicken C. jejuni isolates. The work contained in this thesis contributes significantly to the limited, available information on epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance of human and animal Campylobacter infections in Tanzania. For the first time the occurrence of Campylobacter infections in laboratory animals, antimicrobial resistance of human derived Campylobacter isolates, risk factors for human Campylobacter infections; and the population structure and relatedness of Campylobacter jejuni isolates from humans and chickens in the country are provided. The observed clusters containing isolates from human and avian sources confirm interspecies transmission of this zoonotic pathogen. Information on antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter isolates derived from avian species in the country is also complemented. Control measures for colonization of animals and occurrence of infections in humans with this particular bacterium species arev warranted. Similarly strategies to stem emergency and spread of antimicrobial resistant Campylobacter strains should be put in place.Danish International Development Fun

Molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance of thermophilic campylobacter infections in humans and animals in Tanzania

PhD ThesisMembers of the genus Campylobacter are known to cause more cases of human gastrointestinal illness than any other bacterium worldwide. The organisms exist as normal flora in the intestinal tracts of domestic and wild animals, more so in avian species. Humans acquire Campylobacter infections from contaminated animal products, particularly poultry meat, either directly or through cross-contamination of other food products. Human infections are mostly attributed to Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli, the former causing a larger proportion (85-90%) of all cases reported. In addition to infections, campylobacteriosis is also associated with the emerging threat of antimicrobial resistance as evidenced in isolates derived from different sources. An accurate picture of the epidemiology of infections caused by Campylobacter and other aetiological agents is lacking in developing countries due to the absence of regular surveillance programmes. Consequently the present study was conducted in Morogoro Municipality, Eastern Tanzania, to determine the molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance of thermophilic Campylobacter isolates from humans and animals. Specific objectives were; 1) To establish the prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter infections in humans and animals, 2) To determine the genetic relatedness of chicken and human derived thermophilic Campylobacter isolates using DNA-based typing methods, 3) To evaluate the antimicrobial resistance patterns in thermophilic Campylobacter isolates derived from humans and animals; and 4) To identify risk factors for thermophilic Campylobacter infections in humans. Stool samples were collected from 1195 human subjects; and fecal samples from 1511 farm animals, 466 laboratory animals and 112 wild birds (Indian house crows). Farm animals constituted chickens (n=1267), cattle (n=98), goats (n=81), sheep (n=57), horses (n=5) and camels (n=3); whereas laboratory animals were composed of guinea pigs (Cavia porcelllus, n= 30), mice (Mus musculus, n=160), rabbits (Oryctulagusiii cuniculus, n=34) and rats (Rattus rattus, n=242). The Cape Town protocol was used for isolation of thermophilic Campylobacter from stool and fecal samples. Campylobacter isolates were identified by phenotypic and molecular techniques. The isolates were tested for resistance against several antimicrobial agents using the disc diffusion method. Risk factors for human infections with thermophilic Campylobacter were determined in an unmatched case control study. Selected human and chicken derived Campylobacter jejuni isolates were genotyped using flagellin A gene sequencing. In humans the prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter was 11.4% (n=1195). Symptomatic (12.9%) and young individuals (16.7%) were more infected than asymptomatic (6.7%) and adults (10%), respectively. Most (84.6%) of the isolates were C. jejuni and the remaining were C. coli; and the difference was statistically significant at p≤0.05. Isolates had highest resistance (95.6%) for colistin sulphate and lowest for ciprofloxacin (22.1%). Proportions of resistant isolates for other antibiotics (azithromycin, erythromycin, tetracycline, cephalethin, gentamycin, nalidixic acid, ampicillin, amoxycillin, norfloxacin and chloramphenicol) ranged from 44.1% to 89%. Human infections with thermophilic Campylobacter were associated with young age; and consumption of chicken meat, barbecue and pre-prepared salad. In avians, thermophilic Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 44.0% and 20.5% of the sampled chickens and crows respectively. The majority of isolates from both chickens (87.6%) and crows (56.5%) were C. jejuni and the remaining were C. coli. The observed difference in proportions of C. jejuni and C. coli isolates was statistically significant (p≤0.05) in chickens but not in house crows. Chicken isolates had highest resistance to Colistin sulphate whereas crow isolates showed highest resistance to azithromycin and erythromycin. Lowest resistance was observed for gentamycin and ciprofloxacin for crow and chicken isolates respectively. Among chicken isolates significantly high proportions of C. coli were resistant to gentamycin, cephalothin, tetracycline, colistin sulphate and chloramphenical. On the other hand a high proportion C. jejuni isolates were resistant toiv nalidixic acid. Crow derived C. jejuni had significantly higher resistance to nalidixic acid, cephalothin and ciprofloxacin than C. coli isolates from the same hosts. Among farm animals thermophilic Campylobacter were detected from 18 (31.6%) sheep and 3/5 (60%) of horses. Of the isolates 12 (57%) were C. jejuni; the remaining (43%) were C. coli. Of the laboratory animals 8 (26.7%) guinea pigs and 3 (1.2%) rats were colonized with Campylobacter. Four isolates from the guinea pigs were C. jejuni and the other 4 were C. coli. From the rats two isolates were C. jejuni and one was C. coli. The isolates showed high levels of antimicrobial resistance to erythromycin, norfloxacin colistin sulphate and nalidixic acid in ascending order; whereas low levels of resistance were observed for ciprofloxacin and gentamycin. Out of 55 sequenced isolates obtained from sporadic cases of human illness and different categories of chickens, nine different flaA types (7, 36, 41, 51, 61, 62, 64, 105 and 111) were detected. Both C. jejuni isolates from humans and chickens displayed a high degree of genetic diversity thereby suggesting weak clonality among the tested isolates. Genetic relatedness of some isolates from human and avian sources was however evident as on phylogenetic analysis some clusters contained both human and chicken C. jejuni isolates. The work contained in this thesis contributes significantly to the limited, available information on epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance of human and animal Campylobacter infections in Tanzania. For the first time the occurrence of Campylobacter infections in laboratory animals, antimicrobial resistance of human derived Campylobacter isolates, risk factors for human Campylobacter infections; and the population structure and relatedness of Campylobacter jejuni isolates from humans and chickens in the country are provided. The observed clusters containing isolates from human and avian sources confirm interspecies transmission of this zoonotic pathogen. Information on antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter isolates derived from avian species in the country is also complemented. Control measures for colonization of animals and occurrence of infections in humans with this particular bacterium species arev warranted. Similarly strategies to stem emergency and spread of antimicrobial resistant Campylobacter strains should be put in place.Danish International Development Fun

Prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Mbozi and Mbeya rural districts, Mbeya Tanzania

An epidemiological survey was conducted between November and December 2007 in 30 randomly selected villages and four slaughterslabs in Mbozi and Mbeya Rural districts, southern Tanzania, to determine the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis. Fifteen villages and three slaughterslabs were from Mbozi and fifteen villages and one slaughterslab were from Mbeya Rural. A total of 600 live pigs (300 in each district) of different sex and age categories were randomly selected from smallholder pig-keeping households and subjected to lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA tests. Postmortem examination was performed in pigs slaughtered in official slaughterslabs and local brew clubs. Questionnaire survey and direct observations were used to investigate potential factors related to transmission of T. solium. The overall prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in Mbozi district was 11.7% (95% CI = 8.5-15.8%) and 32% (95% CI: 27- 37.5%) based on lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA, respectively. In Mbeya Rural district, the prevalences were 6% (95% CI: 3.8-9.3%) and 30.7% (95% CI: 25.8- 36.1%), by lingual examination and Antigen-ELISA tests, respectively. The agreement between the two tests was poor (κ < 40%). There were no significant differences in the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis in different age and sex categories of pigs. None of the 805 pigs slaughtered at official slaughterslabs was infected with cysticercosis based on post-mortem inspection. However, of those slaughtered at local brew clubs, 8.2% (n=437) in Mbozi district and 10.8% (n=74) in Mbeya Rural were positive for cysticercosis. Potential risk factors for porcine cysticercosis in the districts included poor pig management, poor sanitary practices, lack of knowledge on the transmission of T. solium, and lack of meat inspection services. This study recommends educational campaigns in the study communities on the epidemiology of the disease, and subsequent revision of the current regulatory framework for pig trade and pork inspection to safeguard public health and improve livelihoods

Human and animal campylobacteriosis in Tanzania: a review

12pThe thermotolerant species of Campylobacter have become very important in public health, particularly as agents of infectious diarrhoea in human beings. Though the mechanism by which they cause disease is yet to be fully explained, they have been recognized as the leading cause of bacterial enteritis in both developed and developing countries. The organisms colonize different animal species without causing any symptoms of disease; and humans acquire infections through contact with or consumption of contaminated meat especially raw/undercooked poultry meat. The growing trend of antibiotic resistant Campylobacter isolates continues to pose significant public health challenges. In this review we present the available information generated in Tanzania about Campylobacter infections in humans and animals. We conducted a structured literature search of PUBMED and ScienceDirect electronic databases and identified 15 articles. Studies on humans reported Campylobacter infections in both symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects; with higher prevalence in children under the age of five years. Studies on animals found colonization of both domestic and wild species. Among isolates, some demonstrated antimicrobial resistance. The available information for both human and animal Campylobacteriosis in the country is sparse. It however provides an insight of the bacteriological and epidemiological aspects of Campylobacter infections in the country and eventually creates more awareness on the need to develop control strategies. Since the organism is zoonotic its control strategies should adopt the “One Health” approach involving collaborative efforts from veterinary and human medicine

Human and animal campylobacteriosis in Tanzania: a review

12pThe thermotolerant species of Campylobacter have become very important in public health, particularly as agents of infectious diarrhoea in human beings. Though the mechanism by which they cause disease is yet to be fully explained, they have been recognized as the leading cause of bacterial enteritis in both developed and developing countries. The organisms colonize different animal species without causing any symptoms of disease; and humans acquire infections through contact with or consumption of contaminated meat especially raw/undercooked poultry meat. The growing trend of antibiotic resistant Campylobacter isolates continues to pose significant public health challenges. In this review we present the available information generated in Tanzania about Campylobacter infections in humans and animals. We conducted a structured literature search of PUBMED and ScienceDirect electronic databases and identified 15 articles. Studies on humans reported Campylobacter infections in both symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects; with higher prevalence in children under the age of five years. Studies on animals found colonization of both domestic and wild species. Among isolates, some demonstrated antimicrobial resistance. The available information for both human and animal Campylobacteriosis in the country is sparse. It however provides an insight of the bacteriological and epidemiological aspects of Campylobacter infections in the country and eventually creates more awareness on the need to develop control strategies. Since the organism is zoonotic its control strategies should adopt the “One Health” approach involving collaborative efforts from veterinary and human medicine