Conflicted Minds: Recalibrational Emotions Following Trust-based Interaction.

Consistent with a modular view of the mind, both short-sighted and long-sighted programs may be simultaneously active in the mind and in conflict with one another when individuals face choice dilemmas in trust-based economic interactions. Recalibrational theory helps us identify the adaptive design features shared among subsets of superordinate emotion programs. According to this design logic and the computation of adaptive problem features produced by Trust games, we predict the activation of emotions after Trust games. While this study successfully predicts reports of twenty distinct emotional states, further studies are needed to demonstrate ultimate recalibrational functions of emotions.emotions, recalibrational theory, modularity, Trust game, experiments

Recalibrational Emotions and the Regulation of Trust-Based Behaviors

Though individuals differ in the degree to which they are predisposed to trust or act trustworthy, we theorize that trust-based behaviors are universally determined by the calibration of conflicting short- and long-sighted behavior regulation programs, and that these programs are calibrated by emotions experienced personally and interpersonally. In this chapter we review both the main-stream and evolutionary theories of emotions that philosophers, psychologists, and behavioral economists have based their work on and which can inform our understanding of trust-based behavior regulation. The standard paradigm for understanding emotions is based on mapping their positive and negative affect valence. While Valence Models often expect that the experience of positive and negative affect is interdependent (leading to the popular use of bipolar affect scales), a multivariate “recalibrational” model based on positive, negative, interpersonal, intrapersonal, short-sighted and long-sighted dimensions predicts and recognizes more complex mixed-valence emotional states. We summarize experimental evidence that supports a model of emotionally-calibrated trust regulation and discuss implications for the use of various emotion measures. Finally, in light of these discussions we suggest future directions for the investigation of emotions and trust psychology

Predictive Mind Reading from First and Second Impressions: Better-than-chance Prediction of Cooperative Behavior

People’s appearance and behaviors in strategic interactions provide a variety of informative clues that can help people accurately predict beliefs, intentions, and future behaviors. Mind reading mechanisms may have been selected for that allow for better-than-chance prediction of others’ strategic social propensities based on the sparse information available when forming first and second impressions. We hypothesize that first impressions are based on prior beliefs and available information gleaned from another’s description and appearance. For example, where another’s gender is identified, prior gender stereotypes could influence expectations and correct guesses about them. We also hypothesize that mind reading mechanisms use second impressions to predict behavior: using new knowledge of past behaviors to predict future behavior. For example, knowledge of the last round behaviors in a repeated strategic interaction should improve the accuracy of guesses about the next round behavior. We conducted a two-part study to test our predictive mind reading hypotheses and to evaluate evidence of accurate cheater and cooperator detection. First, across multiple rounds of play between matched partners, we recorded thin slice videos of university students just prior to their choices in a repeated Prisoner’s Dilemma. Subsequently, a worldwide sample of raters recruited online evaluated either thin-slice videos, photo stills from the videos, no images with gender labeled, or no images with gender blinded for each target. Raters guessed players’ Prisoner’s Dilemma choices in the first round, and, again, in the second round after viewing first round behavior histories. Indicative of mindreading: in all treatments where targets are seen, or their gender is labeled, or their behavioral history is provided, raters guess unacquainted players’ behavior with above-chance accuracy. Overall, cooperators are more accurately detected than cheaters. In both rounds, both cooperator and cheater detection are significantly more accurate when players’ photo or video are seen, where their gender is revealed by image or label, and under conditions with behavioral history. These results provide supporting evidence for predictive mind reading abilities that people use to efficiently detect cooperators and cheaters with better-than-chance accuracy under sparse information conditions. This ability to apply and hone predictive mindreading may help explain why cooperation is commonly observed among strangers in everyday social dilemmas

Trust, Reciprocity and Rules

In the absence of enforceable contracts, many economic and personal interactions rely on trust and reciprocity. Research shows that although this reliance often works well, sometimes it breaks down. Simple rules mandating minimum standards on reciprocation prevent the most egregious trust violations, but may also undermine behavior that would have otherwise produced higher overall economic welfare. We test the efficacy of exogenously imposed minimum return rules using experimental trust games. We find that rules fail to increase trust and trustworthiness. Thus low minimum standards significantly decrease economic welfare. Although sufficiently restrictive rules restore welfare, trust and trustworthy behavior never returns.trust games, experiments, reputation, information, reciprocity

Ageism & Cooperation

Discrimination based on age can affect same-aged and intergenerational interactions, presenting socially and economically undesirable phenomena. To investigate the effects of age stereotypes on cooperation, we presented older adults (over age 50) and younger adults (under age 25) with belief elicitation tasks (about anticipated interactions) and then a series of same, different, and unknown-aged group interactions in a Sender-Receiver game. Compared to the in-group (the age group they belong to) both younger and older participants stereotyped the out-group (the age group they did not belong to) as relatively different and more uncooperative than observed to be. We have only partial support for the notion that stereotypers behaved strategically: while younger stereotypers acted relatively uncooperatively and earned more, older stereotypers acted relatively cooperatively (despite out-group beliefs) and earned less. We discuss the implications of these findings for social identity theory, stereotype theory, and intergenerational interactions in an aging society

Trust in Humans and Robots: Economically Similar but Emotionally Different

Trust-based interactions with robots are increasingly common in the marketplace, workplace, on the road, and in the home. However, a looming concern is that people may not trust robots as they do humans. While trust in fellow humans has been studied extensively, little is known about how people extend trust to robots. Here we compare trust-based investments and emotions from across three nearly identical economic games: human-human trust games, human-robot trust games, and human-robot trust games where the robot decision impacts another human. Robots in our experiment mimic humans: they are programmed to make reciprocity decisions based on previously observed behaviors by humans in analogous situations. We find that people invest similarly in humans and robots. By contrast, the social emotions elicited by the interactions (but not non-social emotions) differed across human and robot trust games, and did so lawfully. Emotional reactions depended on how one’s trust game decision interacted with the partnered agent’s decision, and whether another person was affected economically and emotionally

Performance Modeling of a H2-Fueled Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

To assist in the development of an integrated proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) system, a 2-D fuel cell model has been developed and integrated with supporting zero-D models. The fuel cell model employs a finite-volume discretization of the conservation equations in the gas-phase flow channels, for the gas diffusion layer, and at the electrocatalyst electrolyte interface. The resulting conservation equations are converted into a DAE form for transient integration within MATLAB. The model employs detailed surface thermochemistry within CANTERA for the catalyst and electrolyte surfaces. In this study, the model was used to investigate the isothermal performance of the fuel cell and to assess how steady-state overpotentials depend on operating conditions. These results were validated against existing data supplied by Ballard Power Systems. After validation, the Ballard stack parameters were used in transient integration to evaluate how the fuel cell responds to rapid changes in load and flow conditions

Investment Choice Architecture in Trust Games: When “All-in” Is Not Enough

While many economic interactions feature “All-or-Nothing” options nudging investors towards going “all-in”, such designs may unintentionally affect reciprocity. We manipulate the investor’s action space in two versions of the “trust game”. In one version investors can invest either “all” their endowment or “nothing”. In the other version, they can invest any amount of the endowment. Consistent with our intentions-based model, we show that all-or-nothing” designs coax more investment but limit investors’ demonstrability of intended trust. As a result, “all-in” investors are less generously reciprocated than when they can invest any amount, where full investments are a clearer signal of trustworthiness

Conflicted Emotions Following Trust-Based Interaction

We observed reports of conflicted (concurrent positive and negative) emotions activated after interactions in the Trust game. Our analyses reveal that activation of 20 emotional states following trust-based interaction is better explained by predictions derived from a multi-dimensional Recalibrational perspective than by predictions derived from two-dimensional Valence and Arousal perspectives. The Recalibrational perspective proposes that emotions are activated according to their functional features – for example, emotions help people achieve short or long-sighted goals by up or down-regulating behavioral propensities, whereas Valence and Arousal perspectives consider simpler hedonic dimensions lacking functional specificity. The Recalibrational perspective is also distinguished from the Valence and Arousal perspectives in that it predicts the possibility of conflicted emotions. We discuss the theoretical implications of having conflicted goals and the economic implications of having conflicted emotions

Terminator Habitability: the Case for Limited Water Availability on M-dwarf Planets

Rocky planets orbiting M-dwarf stars are among the most promising and abundant astronomical targets for detecting habitable climates. Planets in the M-dwarf habitable zone are likely synchronously rotating, such that we expect significant day-night temperature differences, and potentially limited fractional habitability. Previous studies have focused on scenarios where fractional habitability is confined to the substellar or "eye" region, but in this paper we explore the possibility of planets with terminator habitability, defined by the existence of a habitable band at the transition between a scorching dayside and a glacial nightside. Using a global climate model, we show that for water-limited planets it is possible to have scorching temperatures in the "eye" and freezing temperatures on the nightside, while maintaining a temperate climate in the terminator region, due to a reduced atmospheric energy transport. Whereas on water-rich planets, increasing stellar flux leads to increased atmospheric energy transport and a reduction in day-night temperature differences, such that the terminator does not remain habitable once the dayside temperatures approach runaway or moist greenhouse limits. We also show that, while water-abundant simulations may result in larger fractional habitability, they are vulnerable to water loss through cold-trapping on the nightside surface or atmospheric water vapor escape, suggesting that even if planets were formed with abundant water, their climates could become water-limited and subject to terminator habitability.Comment: 16 pages, 9 figures, 3 tables, Accepted for publication in The Astronomical Journa