Evolution of mitochondrial relationships and biogeography of Palearctic green toads (Bufo viridis subgroup) with insights in their genomic plasticity.

Taxa involving three bisexually reproducing ploidy levels make green toads a unique amphibian system. We put a cytogenetic dataset from Central Asia in a molecular framework and apply phylogenetic and demographic methods to data from the entire Palearctic range. We study the mitochondrial relationships of diploids to infer their phylogeography and the maternal ancestry of polyploids. Control regions (and tRNAs between ND1 and ND2 in representatives) characterize a deeply branched assemblage of twelve haplotype groups, diverged since the Lower Miocene. Polyploidy has evolved several times: Central Asian tetraploids (B. oblongus, B. pewzowi) have at least two maternal origins. Intriguingly, the mitochondrial ancestor of morphologically distinctive, sexually reproducing triploid taxa (B. pseudoraddei) from Karakoram and Hindukush represents a different lineage. We report another potential case of bisexual triploid toads (B. zugmayeri). Identical d-loops in diploids and tetraploids from Iran and Turkmenistan, which differ in morphology, karyotypes and calls, suggest multiple origins and retained polymorphism and/or hybridization. A similar system involves diploids, triploids and tetraploids from Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan where green toads exemplify vertebrate genomic plasticity. A new form from Sicily and its African sister species (B. boulengeri) allow internal calibration and divergence time estimates for major clades. The subgroup may have originated in Eurasia rather than Africa since the earliest diverged lineages (B. latastii, B. surdus) and earliest fossils occur in Asia. We delineate ranges, contact and hybrid zones. Phylogeography, including one of the first non-avian datasets from Central Asian high mountains, reflects Quaternary climate and glaciation

Мировая практика государственной поддержки венчурной индустри

The experience and features of state models of support for the corporate venture sector in the USA, China, and EU countries are summarized. A general trend in the development of the venture capital industry for foreign countries is the shift in the focus of venture capital funds to investments of late stages of financing. It is shown that the greatest efficiency of government programs in stimulating large companies to innovative and technological development is achieved with joint financing of startups, with the creation of a venture capital fund, with the introduction of tax incentives aimed at companies with high growth potential.Обобщен опыт и особенности государственных моделей поддержки корпоративного венчурного сектора в США, Китае и странах ЕС. Общим трендом развития венчурной отрасли для зарубежных стран является смещение фокуса венчурных фондов на инвестиции поздних стадий финансирования. Показано, что наибольшая эффективность государственных программ при стимулировании крупных компаний к инновационно-технологическому развитию достигается при совместном финансировании стартапов, при создании фонда венчурных фондов, при внедрении налоговых льгот, нацеленных на компании с высоким потенциалом роста