Differences in the weighting and choice of evidence for plausible versus implausible causes.

Individuals have difficulty changing their causal beliefs in light of contradictory evidence. We hypothesized that this difficulty arises because people facing implausible causes give greater consideration to causal alternatives, which, because of their use of a positive test strategy, leads to differential weighting of contingency evidence. Across 4 experiments, participants learned about plausible or implausible causes of outcomes. Additionally, we assessed the effects of participants' ability to think of alternative causes of the outcomes. Participants either saw complete frequency information (Experiments 1 and 2) or chose what information to see (Experiments 3 and 4). Consistent with the positive test account, participants given implausible causes were more likely to inquire about the occurrence of the outcome in the absence of the cause (Experiments 3 and 4) than those given plausible causes. Furthermore, they gave less weight to Cells A and B in a 2 × 2 contingency table and gave either equal or less weight to Cells C and D (Experiments 1 and 2). These effects were inconsistently modified by participants' ability to consider alternative causes of the outcome. The total of the observed effects are not predicted by either dominant models of normative causal inference or by the particular positive test account proposed here, but they may be commensurate with a more broadly construed positive test account.This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from the American Psychological Association via http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a003554

Hydrocarbon seepage in the deep seabed links subsurface and seafloor biospheres

© The Author(s), 2020. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. The definitive version was published in Chakraborty, A., Ruff, S. E., Dong, X., Ellefson, E. D., Li, C., Brooks, J. M., McBee, J., Bernard, B. B., & Hubert, C. R. J. Hydrocarbon seepage in the deep seabed links subsurface and seafloor biospheres. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(20), (2020): 11029-11037, doi: 10.1073/pnas.2002289117.Marine cold seeps transmit fluids between the subseafloor and seafloor biospheres through upward migration of hydrocarbons that originate in deep sediment layers. It remains unclear how geofluids influence the composition of the seabed microbiome and if they transport deep subsurface life up to the surface. Here we analyzed 172 marine surficial sediments from the deep-water Eastern Gulf of Mexico to assess whether hydrocarbon fluid migration is a mechanism for upward microbial dispersal. While 132 of these sediments contained migrated liquid hydrocarbons, evidence of continuous advective transport of thermogenic alkane gases was observed in 11 sediments. Gas seeps harbored distinct microbial communities featuring bacteria and archaea that are well-known inhabitants of deep biosphere sediments. Specifically, 25 distinct sequence variants within the uncultivated bacterial phyla Atribacteria and Aminicenantes and the archaeal order Thermoprofundales occurred in significantly greater relative sequence abundance along with well-known seep-colonizing members of the bacterial genus Sulfurovum, in the gas-positive sediments. Metabolic predictions guided by metagenome-assembled genomes suggested these organisms are anaerobic heterotrophs capable of nonrespiratory breakdown of organic matter, likely enabling them to inhabit energy-limited deep subseafloor ecosystems. These results point to petroleum geofluids as a vector for the advection-assisted upward dispersal of deep biosphere microbes from subsurface to surface environments, shaping the microbiome of cold seep sediments and providing a general mechanism for the maintenance of microbial diversity in the deep sea.We wish to thank Jody Sandel as well as the crew of R/V GeoExplorer for collection of piston cores, onboard core processing, sample preservation, and shipment. Cynthia Kwan and Oliver Horanszky are thanked for assistance with amplicon library preparation. We also wish to thank Jayne Rattray, Daniel Gittins, and Marc Strous for valuable discussions and suggestions, and Rhonda Clark for research support. Collaborations with Andy Mort from the Geological Survey of Canada, and Richard Hatton from Geoscience Wales are also gratefully acknowledged. This work was financially supported by a Mitacs Elevate Postdoctoral Fellowship awarded to A.C.; an Alberta Innovates-Technology Futures/Eyes High Postdoctoral Fellowship to S.E.R.; and a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Strategic Project Grant, a Genome Canada Genomics Applications Partnership Program grant, a Canada Foundation for Innovation grant (CFI-JELF 33752) for instrumentation, and Campus Alberta Innovates Program Chair funding to C.R.J.H

Fostering Preservice Teacher Identity in Science through a Student-Selected Project

This article addresses the problem of authentic student engagement in the science classroom by incorporating a semester long research and writing assignment that enables students to investigate scientific topics related to strong personal, career, or health interests

Starting from the end: What to do when restricted data is released

© 2017 The Author(s).Repository managers can never be one hundred percent sure of the security of hosted research data. Even assuming that human errors and technical faults will never happen, repositories can be subject to hacking attacks. Therefore, repositories accepting personal/sensitive data (or other forms of restricted data) should have workflows in place with defined procedures to be followed should things go wrong and restricted data is inappropriately released. In this paper we will report on our considerations and procedures when restricted data from our institution was inappropriately released

Boards, Commissions and Councils Engaged in Policy Development and Conflict Management Involving Forest Resources: A Review of State Government Structures in the United States

1 electronic resource (PDF; 40 pages

4-(4-Chloro­phen­yl)-6-meth­oxy-2,2′-bipyridine-5-carbonitrile

There are two independent mol­ecules in the asymmetric unit of the title compound, C18H12ClN3O. The two pyridine rings are almost coplanar [dihedral angles between the rings: 2.87 (15) and 5.36 (16)°] while the chloro­phenyl rings are twisted out of the plane of the adjacent bipyridine ring by 44.1 (1) and 43.8 (1)° in the two mol­ecules. The crystal packing is stabilized by C—H⋯N and C—H⋯Cl inter­actions

Separating the influences of prereading skills on early word and nonword reading

The essential first step for a beginning reader is to learn to match printed forms to phonological representations. For a new word, this is an effortful process where each grapheme must be translated individually (serial decoding). The role of phonological awareness in developing a decoding strategy is well known. We examined whether beginning readers recruit different skills depending on the nature of the words being read (familiar words vs. nonwords). Print knowledge, phoneme and rhyme awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological short-term memory (STM), nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, auditory skills, and visual attention were measured in 392 prereaders 4 and 5 years of age. Word and nonword reading were measured 9 months later. We used structural equation modeling to examine the skills–reading relationship and modeled correlations between our two reading outcomes and among all prereading skills. We found that a broad range of skills were associated with reading outcomes: early print knowledge, phonological STM, phoneme awareness and RAN. Whereas all of these skills were directly predictive of nonword reading, early print knowledge was the only direct predictor of word reading. Our findings suggest that beginning readers draw most heavily on their existing print knowledge to read familiar words

Environmental chemical exposures and disturbances of heme synthesis.

Porphyrias are relatively uncommon inherited or acquired disorders in which clinical manifestations are attributable to a disturbance of heme synthesis (porphyrin metabolism), usually in association with endogenous or exogenous stressors. Porphyrias are characterized by elevations of heme precursors in blood, urine, and/or stool. A number of chemicals, particularly metals and halogenated hydrocarbons, induce disturbances of heme synthesis in experimental animals. Certain chemicals have also been linked to porphyria or porphyrinuria in humans, generally involving chronic industrial exposures or environmental exposures much higher than those usually encountered. A noteworthy example is the Turkish epidemic of porphyria cutanea tarda produced by accidental ingestion of wheat treated with the fungicide hexachlorobenzene. Measurements of excreted heme precursors have the potential to serve as biological markers for harmful but preclinical effects of certain chemical exposures; this potential warrants further research and applied field studies. It has been hypothesized that several otherwise unexplained chemical-associated illnesses, such as multiple chemical sensitivity syndrome, may represent mild chronic cases of porphyria or other acquired abnormalities in heme synthesis. This review concludes that, although it is reasonable to consider such hypotheses, there is currently no convincing evidence that these illnesses are mediated by a disturbance of heme synthesis; it is premature or unfounded to base clinical management on such explanations unless laboratory data are diagnostic for porphyria. This review discusses the limitations of laboratory measures of heme synthesis, and diagnostic guidelines are provided to assist in evaluating the symptomatic individual suspected of having a porphyria

Under What Conditions Can Recursion Be Learned? Effects of Starting Small in Artificial Grammar Learning of Center-Embedded Structure

It has been suggested that external and/or internal limitations paradoxically may lead to superior learning, that is, the concepts of starting small and less is more (Elman,; Newport,). In this paper, we explore the type of incremental ordering during training that might help learning, and what mechanism explains this facilitation. We report four artificial grammar learning experiments with human participants. In Experiments 1a and 1b we found a beneficial effect of starting small using two types of simple recursive grammars: right-branching and center-embedding, with recursive embedded clauses in fixed positions and fixed length. This effect was replicated in Experiment 2 (N = 100). In Experiment 3 and 4, we used a more complex center-embedded grammar with recursive loops in variable positions, producing strings of variable length. When participants were presented an incremental ordering of training stimuli, as in natural language, they were better able to generalize their knowledge of simple units to more complex units when the training input “grew” according to structural complexity, compared to when it “grew” according to string length. Overall, the results suggest that starting small confers an advantage for learning complex center-embedded structures when the input is organized according to structural complexity