And then they lived sustainably ever after? : Part I, experiences from rural electrification in Tanzania, Zambia and Kenya

Access to basic, clean energy services is essential for sustainable development and poverty eradication. Still, many people worldwide lack access to modern energy, such as electricity. In Africa, the lack of electricity services is affecting in particular rural areas. Support to rural electrification is therefore given high priority by the national governments and donor organisations. There is an international trend towards deregulation and privatisation of electricity supply, which is also affecting the way to organise rural electrification services in developing countries. The objective of the work presented in this thesis has been to reach increased knowledge of the impact from organisational and institutional factors on project sustainability. The thesis presents the first part of the on-going study, and is focused on the development aspects and factors that are of direct importance for the sustainability of the electricity services. The result presented will contribute to the understanding of the critical factors, and provide input to the second part of the study, which will focus on the broader sustainability aspects of rural electrification in developing countries. From a study of six projects in Tanzania, Zambia and Kenya, using different organisational set-ups and supply technologies, findings show that with sufficient economic, managerial and educational support in the beginning of an organisations life, an electrification project can manage to survive and develop. The projects have many strengths and weaknesses in common, indicating that there is no single most appropriate organisation form for electricity services in rural areas. The present trend with a greater emphasis on privatisation and private sector involvement however implies a risk of marginalising other forms of organisations, such as community-based organisations, government utilities and co-operatives. Among many stakeholders there are a number of "concepts-taken-for-granted" on rural electrification. These are however not supported by the findings from the study. The observed deviations between expectations and realities can obstruct the development since leading decision-makers may have unrealistic expectations when planning for new electrification activities. Future efforts should therefore be concentrated on additional evaluations of experiences from implemented electrification projects, where the opportunities and constraints of rural electrification can be tackled with the empirical reality in mind. By doing so the ambiguities, complexities and all the paradoxes of rural electrification can hopefully be better managed. The findings show that electricity by it self does not lead to sustainable development. Productive uses are mainly constituted by low-load uses, such as lighting for extension of working hours for shops and bars, and to enable lighter forms of income-generating activities in households. Additional findings show that there are still many constraints that likely will affect foreign investors to remain scarce in the rural electricity sector in many countries in Africa, at least for the next few years. The work presented in the thesis has been performed through funding from The Swedish International Development Agency, Department for Research Cooperation (SAREC). Additional financing has been received from Ångpanneföreningen's Foundation for Research and Development (ÅFORSK). The project is part of a research cooperation programme between Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda and Luleå University of Technology.Godkänd; 2005; 20070103 (haneit)</p

The Zanzibar blackout : A case study on consequences from an electricity power crisis

AbstractAvailability of electricity in developing countries is by no doubt a tool for development.However, the development cannot be sustainable if necessary back-up facilities are not in place.This is argued and demonstrated in this paper, using the last 10 years of development in Zanzibar as a case. In Zanzibar, the demand for electricity has grown fast and the amount of billed electricity increased with more than 50 % from year 2003 to year 2007. The highest increase can be seen in the medium sized industries sector, where the tourism sector consisted of a large proportion.With increased dependency of electricity, the fundament for a more vulnerable society is also created. This is illustrated by the economic and social depression that hit Zanzibar during the breakdowns of the power system that occurred for one month in 2008 and for almost three months in 2009-2010. As there where no public back-up generation facility in Zanzibar, this resulted in a total electrical blackout and the citizens had to rely on private electricity generation. In the paper some examples of the consequences are given.QC 2011110

And Then They Lived Sustainably Ever After? : Experiences from Rural Electrification in Tanzania, Zambia and Kenya

Accelerating the introduction of basic, clean energy services is seen as a key strategy for promoting sustainable development in rural areas. Still, many people worldwide lack access to modern energy such as electricity, and Africa lags behind other developing regions of the world. Support to rural electrification is therefore given high priority by the national governments and donor organisations. There is a trend to encourage the involvement of other actors than national utilities for implementation of rural electrification. At the same time, it is required that the activities shall contribute to sustainable development. The objective of the work presented in this thesis has been to reach increased knowledge on the impact from organisational factors on project sustainability, and to examine whether rural electrification implemented by private entrepreneurs or other non-governmental organisations contribute more effectively to sustainable development than the conventional approach where rural electrification is the responsibility of a government utility. A key activity of the research work has been to improve and develop the present methodologies used for evaluations, as to attain a more functional in-field evaluation method. The thesis presents findings from seven rural electrification cases in Eastern and Southern Africa and shows how these can be used to illustrate different dimensions of sustainability by means of indicators. The evaluation indicates that the national utilities perform better from a social/ethical perspective, whereas the private organisations and the community-based organisations manage their client-relation issues in a more sustainable way. In addition, a literature survey shows that among stakeholders there are a number of “concepts-taken-for-granted” as regards to rural electrification. These are not supported by the findings from the seven cases. The observed deviations between expectations and realities can obstruct the development as decision-makers may have unrealistic expectations when planning for new electrification activities. Instead, activities have to be implemented with the empirical reality in mind. By doing so the ambiguities, complexities and all the paradoxes of rural electrification can hopefully be better managed. The study has been funded by The Swedish International Development Agency, Department for Research Cooperation (SAREC), and Ångpanneföreningen’s Foundation for Research and Development (ÅFORSK).QC 2010081

Indicators for assessment of rural electrification--An approach for the comparison of apples and pears

Despite a large number of rural electrification projects being implemented in developing countries, there are few published in-depth evaluations of the effects of these projects on sustainable development. There is also no generally accepted method for the assessment of such effects that includes all relevant aspects of sustainability. An issue of growing importance is whether rural electrification implemented by private entrepreneurs or other non-governmental organisations contribute more effectively to sustainable development than the conventional approach where rural electrification is the responsibility of a government utility. This paper presents a method for sustainability evaluation based on the use of 39 indicators. The proposed indicators cover the five dimensions of sustainability: technical, economical, social/ethical, environmental and institutional sustainability. The paper presents the indicators and gives a detailed example of the procedure to calculate an indicator based on information that can realistically be collected in field studies. It is suggested that this interdisciplinary approach will lead to an improved basis for evaluation of projects than previous, more limited approaches. Projects promoted on the basis of information only about prioritised dimensions of sustainability, such as environment, may fail as a result of weaknesses in other dimensions. The proposed method may reduce this risk.

Lokal energiförsörjning i Kjulaby

The main purpose of this survey is to investigate the possibility of a decrease in the dependency of electricity in the rural areas. The households wich are dependent on electricity as the basic source of energy will have problems at the time of the winding up of the nuclear-power stations. The aim of this investigation is to produce local energy for heating as a complement to the traditional food production. The investigation is carried out for the Department of agricultural engineering in Uppsala at the request of the State Department of energy. The village of Kjulaby, located some 10 km east of Eskilstuna, was selected as an object for the investigation. The district is dominated by cultivated land. The population of the village is about 40 people. The first part of the work was to research the attitudes held by the inhabitants of the village and by the municipality. Generally the attitudes was positiv to a local production of energy. However, half of the inhabitants were doubtful concerning the implementation of the idea. Most of them concidered straw to be the best source of energy. The possibilites for a municipal contribution was available as well. Due to the aspects described above we choosed to concentrate on straw and windpower. These energy sources were investigated in two alternatives. One of them also includes a sun-collector system. The conclusion we made was that a system using straw for heating was the most suitable. The households in the village were then connected to a central heater. This conclusions was made after concidering: * small amount of pollution origined from the burning of straw * increase of labour needed * grain grown in the area is concentrated close to the village * low alternative value of the straw * flexibility of the system, as other crops can be used as well. At present there is no system for transport of the heat so the investment costs would be high. According to the economical aspects, a local production of energy in Kjulaby can only become a reality if the price of electricity is highly increased. A decision of a more forceful energy price policy in the nearest future would be desirable. Until then no conclusions can be made. However, the energy taxes and fees can be used to give priority to energy produced from biomass. If that is the case, we think that Kjulaby has a good potential for a future production of energy

Lokal energiförsörjning i byn Vasselhyttan

The main purpose of this survey is to investigate the possibility of a decrease in the dependency of electricity in the rural areas. The households which are dependent on electricitiy as the basic source of energy, will have problems at the time of the winding up of the nuclear-power-stations. The aim of this investigation is to estimate the possibilities for the farmers to produce local energy for heating as a complement to the traditional food production. The investigation is carried out for the Department of Agricultural Engineering in Uppsala at the request of the State department of Energy. The village of Vasselhyttan, located 20 km north of Lindesberg, was selected as an object for the investigation. The district is dominated by forest. The population of the village is 200 people. The first part of the work was to establish the attitudes held by the inhabitants of the village and by the municipality. Generally the attitudes was positive to a local production of energy. Most of the inhabitants considered woodfuel to be the best source of energy. Some of them also suggested biogas as a good alternative. Due to the aspects described above and to the high potential of forest in the area we choosed to concentrate on fuelwood produced in forest and on cultivated land. We looked upon the possibilities to produce biogas from manure and silage as well. These energy sources were investigated in three different alternatives. Two of them also included. a sun-collector system, The conclusion we made, aming these alternatives, was that a system with a separate furgace for woodfuel in each house was the most suitable. This conclusion was made after considering; * the asset of fuelwood from the surrounding forest * the custom of the inhabitants and the structure of the village * the increase of the laboryeeds * the environmental effects sustained by the fuelwood According to the economical aspects, a local production of energy in Vasselhyttan can only become a reality if the price of electricity is highly increased. A decision of a more forceful energy price policy in the nearest future would be desirable. Until then no conclusion can be made. However, the energy taxes and fees can be used to give priority to energy produced from biomass. If that is the case, we think that Vasselhyttan has a good potential for a future local production of energy

And then they lived sustainably ever after?--Assessment of rural electrification cases by means of indicators

Increasing the current low level of access to electricity in developing countries is important for economic development and poverty eradication. Encouraging the involvement of new actors for implementation of rural electrification projects is a relatively new policy. At the same time, it is required that the projects contribute to sustainable development. It is therefore of interest to investigate whether, for instance, private sector involvement can contribute more to some aspects of sustainability than the conventional approach where rural electrification is the responsibility of a government utility. It seems that so far no studies have addressed this issue. This paper presents findings from field trips to seven rural electrification areas in Eastern and Southern Africa and shows how these studies can be used to illustrate different dimensions of sustainability by means of indicators. The field studies generated valuable experiences regarding collection of data for evaluation of the indicators and illustrate some difficulties associated with comparing the different aspects of sustainability. The evaluation indicates that the national utilities perform better from a social/ethical perspective, whereas the private organisations and the community-based organisations manage their client-relation issues in a more sustainable way.

Study on access to services in peoples settlements : Interdisciplinary perspectives on infrastructure issues in Kenya and Tanzania

Informal settlements (slum-areas) are often considered a transient phenomenon and an outcome from economic hardship which will ease once the national economy improves. This has however proven to be a myth rather than reality. Instead, different forms of informal settlements in and around cities are constantly growing worldwide. Access and affordability to infrastructure services such as water, sanitation, energy and communication is essential for sustainable development and poverty eradication. Even so, the living conditions for people in these areas are far below an acceptable level. This report presents the result from a study on infrastructural issues in informal settlements in East Africa. The aim of the study was to identify indicators within the infrastructural sector that are of special concern for vulnerable groups, such as female-headed households. An additional aim was to apply and test a method for participatory documentation – photo eliciting. The study targeted two informal settlements: Kibera in Nairobi, and Vingunguti in Dar es Salaam, where Vingunguti was selected for the implementation of a field study. In the study 18 female-headed households were interviewed, each of them equipped with a disposable camera with which they were asked to document the problems of their everyday life. The photos were developed and used as a base for individual discussions. In addition, one focus-group discussion was held with 6 (1/3) of the femaleheaded households. The implementation of the study was made using as reference, a previously implemented mapping survey of the settlement. From the study, it is clearly seen that the use of indicators is crucial to get an overview of infrastructural conditions in a settlement. However, indicators can fail to acknowledge problems for vulnerable groups. In the case of Vinguguti, major problems concerning infrastructure such as the sewage dams, an abattoir, and a city dump could not be properly described by traditional indicators. Instead there is a need of increased focus on functionality and accessibility, a dimension not covered by indicators commonly utilised today. Also, photo eliciting is proposed as a way of visualising the every-day life, and a tool for increased participation by the respondents in a study. In addition, photo eliciting of infrastructure shows how interrelated the different issues are. The result from the study clearly illustrates the awareness of the respondents of health implications due to inadequate infrastructure (e.g. no water-dust problems-bronchitis-expensive drugs; rain emptied latrines-bad water quality-stomach problems etc) although they lack the resources to do something about it. This is contrary to other studies, where it is stated that there is a low awareness among residents with regards to these issues. Photo eliciting may also be a way of bridging gaps between the researcher as interviewer and the poor dweller as the interviewee. Lastly, by implementing photo eliciting as a supplemental methodology, the task of definition and interpretation of questions/answers can be easier addressed. The hypothesis of the study was based on the presumption that the specific need of access to infrastructure faced by vulnerable groups in informal settlements is not entirely met by on-going development activities. While this is true, it is not likely that the design of planned infrastructural programmes for informal settlements of Dar es Salaam or Nairobi had been very much different if the perspective of the women included in the study had been fully included. Many poor people are living in informal settlements of Dar es Salaam and Nairobi, and the measures proposed in Action Plans etc., based on results from socio-economic surveys previously referred to, can therefore still be assessed to be suitable from a perspective of reaching the majority of people inhabiting these areas. The study was implemented during 2008-2009 by KTH, School of Environment and Heath, Centre for Health and Building, in corporation with the University of Dar es Salaam, Sociological Department. The project was funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Department for Research Corporation (SAREC).Informella bostadsområden, s.k. slumområden, runt de stora städerna i framförallt utvecklingsländer växer snabbt och sannolikheten för att dessa områden är en tillfällig företeelse är mycket liten. En hållbar utveckling handlar om att fördela jordens ändliga resurser mellan dagens och morgondagens generationer. Tillgång till en fungerande infrastruktur såsom bostäder, rent vatten och energi är en nödvändig del av en hållbar utveckling av alla samhällen. För att människor som bor i informella områden ska får drägliga levnadsvillkor pågår ett flertal program och projekt. Denna rapport presenterar ett forskningsprojekt som utförts i Kibera, Nairobi och i Vingunguti, Dar es Salaam. Som plats för fältarbetet valdes Vingunguti i Dar es Salaam, där en grupp på 18 ensamstående kvinnors hushållsfrågor studerades. Dessutom hölls en gruppdiskussion med en tredjedel av de tillfrågade kvinnorna (6/18). Syftet med studien var främst att se om de data som samlas in i dag, ofta i form av indikatorer, sammanfaller med de problemområden som ensamstående kvinnor själva lyfter fram. Ett annat syfte var att studera och använda en särskild metod för fältarbetet – photo eliciting, där kvinnorna ombads att med en engångskamera dokumentera sina vardagsproblem. De gavs också möjligheten att ta bilder på sin familj, vänner etc. Bilderna framkallade och användes för diskussion om de problem de kvinnor som deltog i studien hade valt att lyfta fram och dokumentera. Dessa problems jämfördes därefter med de områden som tas upp i andra nyligen genomförda undersökningar av informella bostadsområden. Användningen av att sammanställa statistik i form av indikatorer är bra för att få en översiktlig bild av hur förhållandena är i ett område. Dock finns det en uppenbar risk att de problem som främst olika sårbara grupper har, t.ex. ensamstående kvinnor, inte uppmärksammas fullt ut. För området Vingunguti finns tydliga infrastrukturella problem som inte uppmärksammats tillräckligt. Dessa är att några av storstaden Dar es Salaams soptippar och avloppsdammar är lokaliserad till Vingunguti och att ett stort slakteri inryms i området. Andra problem är att service och underhåll av latriner inte fungerar. Sådana problem omfattas inte av de indikatorer som idag använts. Det finns därför ett behov av indikatorer som fokuseras på funktion och tillgänglighet. Studien visar också hur en ökad delaktighet kan uppnås genom att ge deltagarna i en studie möjlighet att själva dokumentera sina vardagsproblem och diskutera bilder med dem – s.k. photo eliciting. Denna metod visar tydligt hur problem inom olika områden är interrelaterade till varandra. De som deltog i studien var mycket medvetna om hur bristen på vatten skapa problem med dammrelaterade sjukdomar och hur bristen på rent vatten orsakade magproblem etc. Detta faktum motsäger resultat från andra studier som i stället pekar på en låg medvetenheten hos fattiga människor i utvecklingsländer om sjukdomsuppkomst och spridning. Photo eliciting kan också vara ett sätt att minska det gap som kan uppstå mellan forskaren som välutbildad intervjuare och en fattig person i ett slumområde som den intervjuade. Inte minst genom att skapa ökade möjligheter att tillsammans definiera vissa begrepp och att tydligare förstå varandra. Hypotesen för den genomförda studien var baserad på antagandet om att de särskilda behov som sårbara grupper i ett slumområde har, inte möts av de program och projekt som i dagsläget genomförs i dessa områden. Studien bekräftar detta antagande. Dock är det inte sannolikt att utformningen av de olika programmen/projekten hade sett så mycket mer annorlunda ut om dessa särskilda behov hade uppmärksammats tydligare. Om alla de program och projekt som utarbetats skulle genomföras enligt plan så skulle nyttan för människor i slumområden med stor sannolikhet bli till gagn för majoriteten av befolkningen, även också de fattigaste. Studien genomfördes mellan åren 2008-2009 av KTH, Skolan för miljö och hälsa, Center för hälsa och byggande tillsammans med University of Dar es Salaam, Sociological Department. Finansiering av studien har erhållits av Sidas avdelning för forskningssamarbete (SAREC).QC 2011070

Odla lokalt påverka globalt : En förstudie om spillvärmedrivna växthus i Haninge

SammanfattningKTH, Skolan för teknik och hälsa, har tillsammans med Haninge kommun inlett ett samarbete om ökad kunskapsöverföring i frågor som rör hållbara samhällen. Fokus ligger på den påverkan vår livsstil har i ett globalt perspektiv. Projektets syfte är att tydliggöra och kommunicera arbetet med hållbarhetsfrågor till boende i Haninge kommun och i den kringliggande regionen i enlighet med Haninge kommuns miljöpolicy som betonar vikten av att ta hänsyn till miljökonsekvenser vid planering och beslut samt att i dialog med företag och omgivande samhälle informera och inspirera till ett miljömässigt ansvarsfullt handlande.I kommunens klimatstrategi lyfts vidare ett aktivt samarbete med KTH fram som en del av en högskole‐ och näringslivssamverkan för att inspirera till insatser i enlighet med målsättningen i ”Uthållig kommun” och säkerställa kompetensförsörjningen inom näringslivet i Haninge.Denna rapport presenterar ett förslag till verksamhet – ett miljöinformationscentrum‐där KTH tillsammans med Haninge kommun ges möjlighet att studera hur man kan minska konsumtionen och öka andelen närproducerat för ett hållbart samhälle och hur detta på bästa sätt kan kommuniceras till allmänheten. För att synas i dagens ’aktivitets‐och mediebrus’ krävs dock att det budskap som kommuniceras kopplas samman med någon form av underhållande aktivitet. Rapportens syfte är därför att övergripande beskriva hur odling av kaffe och andra nyttoväxter i  kretsloppsanpassade växthus kan fungera som en inkörsport för att kommunicera miljöfrågor till kommuninvånare och övriga.I rapporten beskrivs översiktligt syftet med det planerade projektet. En placering av miljöinformationscentrum i området kring Fors reningsverk och Berga naturbruksgymnasium förordas.Området bedöms vara lämpligt av flera skäl bl.a. då det där finns tillgång till spillvärme, mark, vatten, naturgödsel och slam. Till Fors/Berga är kommunikationerna goda och det finns också möjlighet till parkering. Vidare finns möjlighet att erbjuda praktikplatser för elever. Vid en lokalisering av miljöinformationscentrum till Fors/Berga skulle området tillsammans med Berga Naturbruksgymnasium ha en gemensam attraktionskraft och locka till besök av både skolungdomar och äldre. Anläggningarna kan också kompletteras med Bondens marknad där lokala bönder kan sälja närproducerat. En lokalisering vid Fors/Berga innebär också en närhet till befintliga konferenslokaler. Även andra lokaliseringar har diskuterats. Dessa har dock inte ansetts uppfylla de kriterier som specificerats, framförallt möjligheterna till spillvärme som är en viktig förutsättning för att kunna uppföra kretsloppsanpassade växthus. De scenarier med lägst krav på investeringskostnad är de fall där den befintliga rötgaskammaren används i Fors avloppsreningsverk eller där en ny mindre biogasanläggning byggs i Berga. Dessa alternativ antas uppgå till mellan 10‐15 Mkr i investeringskostnad. Det bör dock påpekas att tills ett beslut om den framtida verksamheten vid Fors avloppsreningsverk är fattat är framtiden för Fors osäker och därmed också möjligheterna att på sikt tillvarata spillvärme från anläggningen. Det är viktigt för trovärdigheten i anläggningen, och för de aktiviteter som kommer att bedrivas, att verksamheten är kretsloppsanpassad. En sådan anpassning kan dock medföra att kostnaderna i investeringsfasen blir högre än vad de skulle ha blivit i normalfallet”. De högre investeringskostnaderna innebär dock att driftskostnaderna blir avsevärt lägre.SummaryKTH, School for Technology and Health, has together with the municipality of Haninge initiated cooperation on awareness‐ raising activities on sustainable development. This report presents a first proposal on an Environmental Centre which can be utilized by KTH and the municipality of Haninge for research purposes on the possibilities to influence the citizens towards a reduced consumption of goods and an increased production of local crops. The aim with the report is to  present a brief investigation on how cultivation of coffee and other useful plants can be produced in environmentally sustainable greenhouses. The activities will serve as a gateway for communication of environmental issues towards citizens of Haninge and others.In the report, issues such as possible locations of the Environmental Centre, infrastructure, and organisation is briefly discussed and analysed. The area surrounding the sewage treatment plant of Fors, and the agricultural secondary school of Berga, is recommended, due to its suitability mainly as an area with a potential for waste heat. The area also has a potential as an area of future attraction, in combination with activities planned for at Berga. Such activities include possibilities for local farmers and craftsmen to sell their products – Bondens marknad. The activities anticipated will suit both youth and grown‐ ups.Different scenarios have been studied, where the scenarios where the present digester in Fors is utilised, or where a new digester is built in Berga, appears to be those with lowest demand of investment, approximately 10 ‐15 MSEK. However, it needs to be said, that the plant in Fors is old and awaiting a decision of  rehabilitation or closing- down. This will affect the future possibilities of waste heat utilisation in the proposed area