Parliaments in Europe Engaging in Post-legislative Scrutiny: Comparing the French, Italian and Swiss Experiences

Post-legislative scrutiny (PLS) is not completely new to European parliamentarism. In the last few decades, this activity has experienced rapid development, either pushed by supranational trends on better regulation or fostered by national constitutional reforms. However, the involvement of parliaments in the ex post stage of law-making still remains under-theorised. This article aims at providing a comparative overview of the main rules, practices and trends on post-legislative scrutiny in Europe, focusing on the experience of three bicameral Parliaments: the French, Italian and Swiss Parliaments which have been selected as examples of three proactive approaches to post-legislative scrutiny, based on alternative bicameral arrangements. After providing a general overview of the main options that support the involvement of parliaments in the ex-post stage of law-making, the article examines how the benchmark case studies address the following variables: the internal organisation of the ex-post scrutiny, including the role of the administrative staff; the scrutiny object, either referred to single pieces of legislation or to a whole policy; the scope of the ex-post scrutiny, verifying whether it is interpreted as a purely legal dimension or it comprises also forms of impact assessment; the outcomes of the ex-post scrutiny, and more specifically its contribution to the legislative decision-making. The paper demonstrates that PLS in parliament may lead to political outcomes addressing the government when the form of government, the constitutional framework and the party dimension support a competitive use of this tool in the legislative-executive interaction

Parliaments in Europe Engaging in Post-legislative Scrutiny

Post-legislative scrutiny (PLS) is not completely new to European parliamentarism. In the last few decades, this activity has experienced rapid development, either pushed by supranational trends on better regulation or fostered by national constitutional reforms. However, the involvement of parliaments in the ex post stage of law-making still remains under-theorised. This article aims at providing a comparative overview of the main rules, practices and trends on post-legislative scrutiny in Europe, focusing on the experience of three bicameral Parliaments: the French, Italian and Swiss Parliaments which have been selected as examples of three proactive approaches to post-legislative scrutiny, based on alternative bicameral arrangements. After providing a general overview of the main options that support the involvement of parliaments in the ex-post stage of law-making, the article examines how the benchmark case studies address the following variables: the internal organisation of the ex-post scrutiny, including the role of the administrative staff; the scrutiny object, either referred to single pieces of legislation or to a whole policy; the scope of the ex-post scrutiny, verifying whether it is interpreted as a purely legal dimension or it comprises also forms of impact assessment; the outcomes of the ex-post scrutiny, and more specifically its contribution to the legislative decision-making. The paper demonstrates that PLS in parliament may lead to political outcomes addressing the government when the form of government, the constitutional framework and the party dimension support a competitive use of this tool in the legislative-executive interaction

Le prospettive di riforma della Costituzione italiana: note di metodo

Il contributo analizza le principali prospettive di riforma della Costituzione italiana, nel tentativo di evidenziare la ricchezza degli approcci metodologici che hanno contraddistinto i vari procedimenti di revisione costituzionale. Rispetto ai profili di metodo, si intende brevemente ricostruire in una prospettiva storica il rapporto tra revisioni organiche e revisioni puntuali e tra procedimenti di revisione speciali o ordinari. Tale analisi consentirà di identificare la varietà delle strategie riformatrici perseguite, inquadrandole nel relativo contesto politico-istituzionale ed evidenziandone il collegamento con le consultazioni referendarie. Focalizzando l'attenzione sull'ultima riforma costituzionale, quella relativa alla riduzione del numero dei parlamentari, si evidenzierà come una riforma apparentemente "puntuale" nel suo impatto emendativo sul testo costituzionale possa aprirsi a conseguenze di grande impatto nel rapporto delle due Camere sia con gli elettori che con il Governo. Se ne richiameranno quindi le più significative interazioni con la riforma elettorale e con i regolamenti parlamentari. Tale riflessione consentirà, in conclusione, di sottolineare come il processo attuativo che accompagna una riforma costituzionale svolga un ruolo determinante nel definirne la portata e l'impatto. Le grandi o piccole riforme non si valutano tanto nel numero di articoli costituzionali modificati, ma piuttosto nella capacità complessiva di un intero sistema di accompagnare il cambiamento sul piano delle attuazioni e integrazioni legislative, dell'interpretazione costituzionale, della modifica delle consuetudini in essere

The perspectives for reforming the Italian Constitution: methodological remarks

The contribution analyses the main perspectives of reform of the Italian Constitution, in an attempt to highlight the wealth of methodological approaches that have characterised the debate on constitutional revision and its historical developments. The historical perspective clearly shows the difference between organic and ad hoc revisions and between special and ordinary revision procedures. This overview confirms the variety of reform strategies pursued, setting them in their political and institutional context and considering their connection with referendums. Focusing on the  2020 constitutional reform on  the reduction of the number of parliamentarians, the contribution assesses how an apparently „punctual” reform  may open up to consequences of great impact on the relationship of the two Houses both with the electorate and with the Government. The interaction with the electoral reform and the parliamentary rules of procedure demonstrate how the implementation process that follows a constitutional reform plays a decisive role in defining its shape and scope. Major or minor reforms should not be measured so much in the number of constitutional articles amended as in the overall capacity to support the constitutional change with  legislative implementation, interpretation and the modification of existing practices. Il contributo analizza le principali prospettive di riforma della Costituzione italiana, nel tentativo di evidenziare la ricchezza degli approcci metodologici che hanno contraddistinto i vari procedimenti di revisione costituzionale. Rispetto ai profili di metodo, si intende brevemente ricostruire in una prospettiva storica il rapporto tra revisioni organiche e revisioni puntuali e tra procedimenti di revisione speciali o ordinari. Tale analisi consentirà di identificare la varietà delle strategie riformatrici perseguite, inquadrandole nel relativo contesto politico-istituzionale ed evidenziandone il collegamento con le consultazioni referendarie. Focalizzando l’attenzione sull’ultima riforma costituzionale, quella relativa alla riduzione del numero dei parlamentari, si evidenzierà come una riforma apparentemente „puntuale” nel suo impatto emendativo sul testo costituzionale possa aprirsi a conseguenze di grande impatto nel rapporto delle due Camere sia con gli elettori che con il Governo. Se ne richiameranno quindi le più significative interazioni con la riforma elettorale e con i regolamenti parlamentari. Tale riflessione consentirà, in conclusione, di sottolineare come il processo attuativo che accompagna una riforma costituzionale svolga un ruolo determinante nel definirne la portata e l’impatto. Le grandi o piccole riforme non si valutano tanto nel numero di articoli costituzionali modificati, ma piuttosto nella capacità complessiva di un intero sistema di accompagnare il cambiamento sul piano delle attuazioni e integrazioni legislative, dell’interpretazione costituzionale, della modifica delle consuetudini in essere.The contribution analyses the main perspectives of reform of the Italian Constitution, in an attempt to highlight the wealth of methodological approaches that have characterised the debate on constitutional revision and its historical developments. The historical perspective clearly shows the difference between organic and ad hoc revisions and between special and ordinary revision procedures. This overview confirms the variety of reform strategies pursued, setting them in their political and institutional context and considering their connection with referendums. Focusing on the  2020 constitutional reform on  the reduction of the number of parliamentarians, the contribution assesses how an apparently „punctual” reform  may open up to consequences of great impact on the relationship of the two Houses both with the electorate and with the Government. The interaction with the electoral reform and the parliamentary rules of procedure demonstrate how the implementation process that follows a constitutional reform plays a decisive role in defining its shape and scope. Major or minor reforms should not be measured so much in the number of constitutional articles amended as in the overall capacity to support the constitutional change with  legislative implementation, interpretation and the modification of existing practices

Inter-parliamentary Cooperation in the EU and outside the Union: Distinctive Features and Limits of the European Experience

The article draws comparisons between inter-parliamentary cooperation in the European Union and at the international level. It recognises that, notwithstanding a strong international imprint, inter-parliamentary relations in the EU have gradually experienced somewhat distinctive pushes, deeply embedded in the unique constitutional arrangement of the Union. On the one hand, the composite nature of EU constitutionalism, and its impact on parliaments\u2019 relationship with the democratic oversight rationale, have exercised a major influence on the aims and scope of inter-parliamentary cooperation. On the other hand, from the organisational point of view, the distinctive structure of parliamentary representation in the EU has pushed inter-parliamentary arrangements into a multi-layered design, consisting of a large variety of vertical formats. The article argues that interparliamentary cooperation in the EU is expected to act as a sui generis practice when compared to apparently similar forms of transnational dialogue amongst parliaments. In theory, at least, the EU sets ideal conditions for fulfilling an authentic collective parliamentary dimension, instrumental to the democratic oversight of the executives. Instead, focusing on the practice, the full potential of EU inter-parliamentarism is not yet fulfilled, for two set of reasons: the unresolved ambiguities over its contribution to parliamentary democracy and the lack of a real capacity to depart from the formats of international parliamentary institutions

The rapid spread of SARS-COV-2 Omicron variant in Italy reflected early through wastewater surveillance

The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant emerged in South Africa in November 2021, and has later been identified worldwide, raising serious concerns. A real-time RT-PCR assay was designed for the rapid screening of the Omicron variant, targeting characteristic mutations of the spike gene. The assay was used to test 737 sewage samples collected throughout Italy (19/21 Regions) between 11 November and 25 December 2021, with the aim of assessing the spread of the Omicron variant in the country. Positive samples were also tested with a real-time RT-PCR developed by the European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), and through nested RT-PCR followed by Sanger sequencing. Overall, 115 samples tested positive for Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variant. The first occurrence was detected on 7 December, in Veneto, North Italy. Later on, the variant spread extremely fast in three weeks, with prevalence of positive wastewater samples rising from 1.0% (1/104 samples) in the week 5-11 December, to 17.5% (25/143 samples) in the week 12-18, to 65.9% (89/135 samples) in the week 19-25, in line with the increase in cases of infection with the Omicron variant observed during December in Italy. Similarly, the number of Regions/Autonomous Provinces in which the variant was detected increased from one in the first week, to 11 in the second, and to 17 in the last one. The presence of the Omicron variant was confirmed by the JRC real-time RT-PCR in 79.1% (91/115) of the positive samples, and by Sanger sequencing in 66% (64/97) of PCR amplicons. In conclusion, we designed an RT-qPCR assay capable to detect the Omicron variant, which can be successfully used for the purpose of wastewater-based epidemiology. We also described the history of the introduction and diffusion of the Omicron variant in the Italian population and territory, confirming the effectiveness of sewage monitoring as a powerful surveillance tool

The rapid spread of SARS-COV-2 Omicron variant in Italy reflected early through wastewater surveillance

The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant emerged in South Africa in November 2021, and has later been identified worldwide, raising serious concerns. A real-time RT-PCR assay was designed for the rapid screening of the Omicron variant, targeting characteristic mutations of the spike gene. The assay was used to test 737 sewage samples collected throughout Italy (19/21 Regions) between 11 November and 25 December 2021, with the aim of assessing the spread of the Omicron variant in the country. Positive samples were also tested with a real-time RT-PCR developed by the European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), and through nested RT-PCR followed by Sanger sequencing. Overall, 115 samples tested positive for Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variant. The first occurrence was detected on 7 December, in Veneto, North Italy. Later on, the variant spread extremely fast in three weeks, with prevalence of positive wastewater samples rising from 1.0% (1/104 samples) in the week 5–11 December, to 17.5% (25/143 samples) in the week 12–18, to 65.9% (89/135 samples) in the week 19–25, in line with the increase in cases of infection with the Omicron variant observed during December in Italy. Similarly, the number of Regions/Autonomous Provinces in which the variant was detected increased fromone in the first week, to 11 in the second, and to 17 in the last one. The presence of the Omicron variant was confirmed by the JRC real-time RT-PCR in 79.1% (91/115) of the positive samples, and by Sanger sequencing in 66% (64/97) of PCR amplicons

Konstrukcja europejskiego systemu ochrony praw socjalnych: przypadek dyrektywy o transgranicznej opiece zdrowotnej

Starting from the idea that the protection of social rights represents a problematic issue in the history of the European social integration, the essay analyses contemporary changes in the EU approach to social rights and policies. It focuses on the Directive 2011/24/UE on cross-border health protection, considered as a potential turning point for the European welfare system.In particular, it is argued that, at their origins, the European Communities did not considered the protection of social rights as a priority, leaving upon the responsibility of Member States the functioning of the Welfare systems. Interest vested upon the construction of a single market, however, did not prevented the European institutions – and in particular the European Court of Justice – from recognising spheres of social protection to European citizens. As a consequence, the European social integration was traditionally characterised by its being considered instrumental to the economic integration and by its jurisprudential matrix. This historical evolution must now be framed in the contemporary context of global economic crisis, as this latter seems to trigger some of the fundamental criteria which, in the traditional Welfare systems, have accompanied the recognition and protection of social rights. On the basis of such premises, the essay analysis the main novelties introduced by the Directive 2011/24/UE on cross-border health protection. The Directive, in fact, is based on a new mechanism of health assistance at supranational level, characterised by three main features: the fulfilment of the rules and principles of the free circulation; the composed nature of the upcoming European Health System, resulting from the integration of the national health systems; the coordination of national administrations and the creation of European networks. Due to its innovative nature, this integrated model of cross-border health protection seems to offer new paths of development to the European social integration. It is in fact both compatible with the increased financial limits posed by the economic crisis and coherent with the respect of national specificities.Sommario: 1. Introduzione: il problema dell'effettiva tutela dei diritti sociali nello spazio europeo - 2. Eguaglianza vs non discriminazione: due diversi approcci al tema tra Costituzioni nazionali e diritto europeo - 3. Il cammino dei diritti sociali nell'Unione europea - 3.1. In particolare: la moderazione del Trattato di Lisbona rispetto ai diritti sociali - 3.2. L'impatto della crisi economica sulla tutela dei diritti sociali: un paradosso - 4. Un tentativo di creare uno spazio di tutela infraeuropeo: la direttiva 2011/24/UE sull'assistenza sanitaria transfrontaliera - 4.1. Le finalità istituzionali: la libera circolazione dei cittadini europei nell’accesso ai trattamenti sanitari- 4.2. I tre pilastri della direttiva: libertà di circolazione, sistemi sanitari nazionali e cooperazione tra gli Stati membri - 5. Considerazioni di sintesi: verso un nuovo spazio europeo di protezione dei diritti sociali?Od momentu zainicjowania wspólnotowej przestrzeni socjalnej ochrona praw socjalnych stanowiła poważne wyzwanie. W chwili obecnej zachodzą jednak duże zmiany w zakresie praw socjalnych i polityki socjalnej, a wymownym tego przykładem jest Dyrektywa 2011/24/UE w sprawie transgranicznej opieki zdrowotnej, w której upatruje się potencjalny punkt zwrotny w europejskim modelu społecznym. Autorka przekonuje, że kwestia ochrony praw socjalnych początkowo nie należała do priorytetów Wspólnot Europejskich, które pozostawiały państwom członkowskim odpowiedzialność za funkcjonowanie systemów opieki socjalnej. Ostatecznie jednak interesy ekonomiczne podporządkowane tworzeniu jednolitego rynku nie powstrzymały instytucji europejskich, a w szczególności Europejskiego Trybunału Sprawiedliwości, przed wyodrębnieniem sfery ochrony socjalnej obywateli UE, ale konsekwencją tak kształtowanej europejskiej integracji społecznej był jej instrumentalny charakter w stosunku do integracji gospodarczej, odzwierciedlony w utrwalonej linii orzeczniczej.Zintegrowany model transgranicznej opieki zdrowotnej, ze względu na swój innowacyjny charakter, może wytyczyć nowe ścieżki rozwoju europejskiej integracji społecznej. Jest on bowiem zgodny zarówno ze zwiększonymi ograniczenia finansowymi wywołanymi przez kryzys gospodarczy, a zarazem spójny z odrębnościami poszczególnych krajów.Tłumaczenie: K. Jachimowic