Are The State and The Family Unit Substitutable in The Financial Support of The Unemployed in Europe? A Comparison Based on The European Panel

The financial support of the unemployed falls to both the State and the family. The European panel data for the period 1995-2000 shows a difference between the countries of Northern Europe, where the State plays a preponderant role, and those of Southern Europe, where the contribution from the family compensates for a less generous State intervention. In the majority of the EU-10, State unemployment benefits appear to be greater when the financial support from the family is small, and are quite meagre when the family contribution is considerable. The family contribution does not fully compensate the disparities of State support observed between the countries: the standards of living of the unemployed remain highly contrasted and continue to reflect the disparities between the unemployment benefits systems.Unemployment Compensation, Well-Being, Family Structure

Bsd Does Community Property Discourage Unpartnered Births? *

ABSTRACT I. Introduction In recent decades family institutions in the West have undergone radical changes, including large decreases in the proportion of children born in wedlock and a switch from marriage to cohabitation Being raised by a single parent is often associated with lower achievement Children may often be unintended and not the product of rational choices. Nevertheless, we present a model of women's rational choice between having a child alone or with a partner, whether in cohabitation or marriage. 1 Our model assumes that single women make a choice between having children with or without a partner as a function of the financial advantages and disadvantages associated with having a child under these two sets of circumstances. We also assume that most couples who have children are tradition-bound in the sense that the women consider reducing their labor force hours after childbirth and appreciate the financial advantages of marriage or cohabitation with a man who is willing to act as the primary earner, whereas men appreciate women's willingness to get more involved with childcare than they plan to be

Role of causality in ensuring unconditional security of relativistic quantum cryptography

The problem of unconditional security of quantum cryptography (i.e. the security which is guaranteed by the fundamental laws of nature rather than by technical limitations) is one of the central points in quantum information theory. We propose a relativistic quantum cryptosystem and prove its unconditional security against any eavesdropping attempts. Relativistic causality arguments allow to demonstrate the security of the system in a simple way. Since the proposed protocol does not employ collective measurements and quantum codes, the cryptosystem can be experimentally realized with the present state-of-art in fiber optics technologies. The proposed cryptosystem employs only the individual measurements and classical codes and, in addition, the key distribution problem allows to postpone the choice of the state encoding scheme until after the states are already received instead of choosing it before sending the states into the communication channel (i.e. to employ a sort of ``antedate'' coding).Comment: 9 page

“It's like giving him a piece of me.”: Exploring UK and Israeli women's accounts of motherhood and feeding

Objective The present study explored how Israeli and UK mothers integrate feeding into their conceptualisations of mothering 2–6 months post-partum. Background The nature and importance of motherhood is subject to differential contextual, cultural, political and historical influences. We set out to compare experiences of motherhood and feeding between these two countries using a qualitative approach. Methods Forty one women (mean age 36.4 ± 2.7 years) from Israel and the UK, mostly married or in a committed relationship were interviewed about their experience of pregnancy, motherhood and feeding. Data were analysed thematically. Results The experience of motherhood in the early postnatal period was dominated, for all mothers, by the experience of breastfeeding and clustered around three representations of mothering, namely; 1) a devoted mother who ignores her own needs; 2) a mother who is available for her infant but acknowledges her needs as well; and 3) a struggling mother for whom motherhood is a burden. Such representations existed within both cultural groups and sometimes coexisted within the same mothers. UK women described more struggles within motherhood whereas a tendency towards idealising motherhood was observed for Israeli women. Conclusion There are similarities in the ways that UK and Israeli women experienced motherhood and feeding. Where family life is strongly emphasized, mothers reported extremes of idealism and burden and associated an “ideal” mother with a breastfeeding mother. Where motherhood is represented as just one of many roles women take up, they are more likely to represent a “good enough” approach to mothering. Understanding the experience of motherhood and feeding in different cultural settings is important to provide the context for postnatal care specifically where mothers are reluctant to share problems or difficulties encountered

L'État et la cellule familiale sont-ils substituables dans la prise en charge des chômeurs en Europe ?

[fre] La prise en charge des chômeurs repose à la fois sur l'État et sur la famille. Les données du panel européen sur la période 1995-2000 mettent en évidence une opposition entre les pays du Nord de l'Europe, où le rôle de l'État est prépondérant, et ceux du Sud où l'apport de la famille pallie une intervention de l'État moins généreuse. Les taux de prise en charge respectifs par la famille et l'État prennent en compte le salaire potentiel qui serait perçu par un chômeur s'il reprenait un emploi. Dans la plupart des pays de l'Europe des dix, la compensation de l'État apparaît plus forte lorsque celle de la famille ne l'est pas et assez faible lorsque la famille contribue fortement. Cette « substituabilité » plus ou moins prononcée d'un État à l'autre s'explique en partie par le poids, variable d'un pays à l'autre, des différentes configurations familiales des ménages de chômeurs : les jeunes vivant au sein de la cellule familiale et les conjoints sont davantage pris en charge par la famille, alors que les chefs de ménage et les personnes seules sont essentiellement tributaires de l'État. L'apport familial ne compense pas entièrement les disparités de prise en charge par l'État constatées d'un pays à l'autre : le niveau de vie des chômeurs reste fortement contrasté et continue de refléter la disparité des systèmes d'indemnisation du chômage. Sur la période, le Danemark est le pays où les chômeurs sont le mieux pris en charge par l'État tandis que, à l'autre extrême, la famille, très présente dans les pays du Sud, ne compense pas la faiblesse de l'indemnisation par l'État. En France, la combinaison d'une prise en charge publique et familiale débouche sur un taux de compensation moyen élevé des pertes liées au chômage. Dans tous les pays, l'apport familial améliore sensiblement la situation relative de certaines catégories de chômeurs, particulièrement celle des femmes appartenant à un couple et des jeunes adultes restés au domicile parental. [eng] Are the State and the family unit substitutable in the fi nancial support of the unemployed in Europe ? A comparison based on the European panel. The financial support of the unemployed falls to both the State and the family. The European panel data for the period 1995-2000 shows a difference between the countries of Northern Europe, where the State plays a preponderant role, and those of Southern Europe, where the contribution from the family compensates for a less generous State intervention. The levels of fi nancial support from the family and the State respectively take into account the potential salary that the unemployed person would receive if they were to work again. In the majority of the EU-10, State unemployment benefi ts appear to be greater when the fi nancial support from the family is small, and are quite meagre when the family contribution is considerable. This •substitutability” more or less pronounced from one State to the other is explained in part by the weight, variable between the countries, of the different family confi gurations in the households of the unemployed: young people living within the family unit and partners are more supported by the family, whilst heads of households and single people are essentially benefi ciaries of the State. Are the State and the family unit substitutable in the fi nancial support of the unemployed in Europe ? A comparison based on the European panel. The family contribution does not fully compensate the disparities of State support observed between the countries: the standards of living of the unemployed remain highly contrasted and continue to refl ect the disparities between the unemployment benefi ts systems. During the period observed, Denmark is the country where the unemployed were best supported by the State whilst, at the other extreme, the family, playing an important role in the countries of Southern Europe, did not compensate for the low State benefi ts. In France, the combination of signifi cant State and family support results in a high average benefi ts rate of the losses linked to unemployment. In all the countries, family fi nancial support noticeably improves the relative situation of certain categories of the unemployed, particularly that of women with a partner and young adults living in the parental home. [spa] ¿ El Estado y la célula familiar son sustituibles al hacerse cargo de los parados en Europa? Una comparación basada en el ejemplo europeo. El hecho de hacerse cargo de los parados reposa a la vez en el Estado y en la familia. Los datos del ejemplo europeo del periodo 1995-2000 evidenciaron una oposición entre los países del Norte de Europa, en los que el Estado tiene un papel preponderante, y los del Sur en los que la aportación familiar atenúa una intervención menos generosa del Estado. La tasa en que la familia y el Estado se hacen cargo tiene en cuenta el salario potencial que percibiría un parado si retomara un empleo. En la mayoría de los países de la Europa de los diez, la compensación del Estado se muestra más alta cuando la de la familia no lo es, y bastante baja cuando la familia contribuye. Esta «sustitución» más o menos pronunciada de un Estado a otro se explica en parte por el peso, variable de un país a otro, de las diferentes confi guraciones familiares de los hogares de los parados: la familia se hace cargo de los jóvenes que viven en la célula familiar y de los cónyuges, mientras que los cabezas de familia y las personas solas son esencialmente tributarias del Estado. La aportación familiar no compensa completamente las disparidades de responsabilidad del Estado constatadas de un país a otro: el nivel de vida de los parados es muy diferente y continúa mostrando la dis- [ger] Arbeitslose erhalten Unterstützung vom Staat wie auch von der Familie. Die Daten des europäischen Panels für den Zeitraum 1995-2000 zeigen den Kontrast auf, der zwischen den nordeuropäischen Ländern, in denen die Rolle des Staates dominiert, und den südeuropäischen Ländern, in denen der Beitrag der Familie die weniger großzügigen Leistungen des Staates ausgleicht, besteht. Der Umfang der jeweiligen Unterstützung durch die Familie und den Staat hängt vom potenziellen Lohn ab, den ein Arbeitsloser im Falle einer Wiederbeschäftigung beziehen würde. Sind Staat und Familie bei der Unterstützung der Arbeitslosen in Europa substituierbar? Ein Vergleich auf der Basis des europäischen Panels

Solidarités publiques et privées dans la prise en charge des jeunes chômeurs en Europe

National audienceCette contribution se propose de tester la substituabilité entre État et famille dans la prise en charge du chômage dans dix pays européens. Après avoir estimé ce que pourrait être le gain estimé des chômeurs, nous utilisons cette base de comparaison pour analyser le pourcentage du salaire espéré pris en charge par l’État et la famille. Nous montrons que, malgré la conjonction des prises en charge familiale et étatique, les niveaux de vie des chômeurs restent très contrastés en Europe et cette disparité de niveaux de vie recoupe principalement les différences de générosité du système d’indemnisation chômage. Nous soulignons également que l’importance des niveaux de prise en charge dépend crucialement de la structure démographique du chômage (chômage de la personne seule ou chômage des jeunes qui vivent toujours au domicile familial). Enfin, nous testons la substituabilité entre les indicateurs de prise en charge étatique et familiale pour mettre en évidence une substituabilité dans les pays « continentaux ». Cette substituabilité est surtout apparente pour les chômeurs qui résident toujours au sein de la structure familial

Does community property discourage unpartnered births?

This paper investigates the likelihood of an unpartnered birth as a function of laws regulating the division of joint property in case of divorce. Based on a rational choice model of marriage and assuming that on average women earn less than men, we predict that women are less likely to have an unpartnered birth when rules for the division of joint property are more advantageous to spouses with lower earnings. We derive more predictions regarding the effects of age, non-intact home, and religiosity, and the interaction between these variables and legal regime regarding divorce. We test our predictions with retrospective data from the Family Fertility Surveys collected in the 1990s. Most of our predictions are confirmed by a multi-country analysis for 17 legal regimes in 12 Western countries as well as single-country analyses for four countries. Our major findings are that the likelihood of an unpartnered birth is higher in countries that offer most women less access to joint property in case of divorce, and that this effect is weaker for teenagers than for women in their twenties.