Female stereotypes in print advertising: a retrospective analysis

The depiction of females in advertising has received considerable academic attention, fuelled by the feminist movement and the evolution of women’s roles in the society. Early studies revealed the prevalence of traditional portrayals such as housewives, women dependent on a man’s protection and depictions of sexual objectification. Even though a decrease in female stereotyping would be reasonable considering the contemporary structure of society that prescribes multiple gender roles, this does not seem to be the case: The literature is replete with studies documenting that female stereotyping is alive and well, even if it manifests itself with different types and patterns than it did some decades ago. This study strives to adopt a holistic outlook to the phenomenon of female stereotypes in print advertisements, tracing its origins, analyzing the interplay of stereotypes and advertising, undertaking an exhaustive perusal of the particular stream of literature, addressing methodological issues and proposing directions for further research

Gender portrayals revisited: searching for explicit and implicit stereotypes in Cypriot magazine advertisements

The study pursues a line of inquiry into contemporary gender stereotypes drawn from print advertisements in Cyprus. The investigation of implicit modes of stereotyping suggested by Goffman across explicit gender roles yield novel and interesting insights that broaden existing knowledge on male and female advertising depictions. Through a content analysis of 3.729 characters, the study reveals the existence of gender cliches in Cypriot magazine advertisements. Neither male nor female evolving roles are adequately reflected in advertisements, as men tend to be portrayed in traditional masculine stereotypes while women lean towards decorative portrayals. Implicit stereotyping is more likely to suggest the subordination and lower status of women compared to men. The study indicates that advertising in Cyprus reinforces the diffusion of hostile sexism by the underrepresentation of professional women and their commonplace portrayal in body revealing attires. At the same time, the high proportion of women's implicit subordination signifies benevolent sexism. The distorted representation of both genders raises key public policy concerns, as diminishing portrayals hold sway upon men's and women's psychological well-being and professional development

Museums as brandscapes: the role of atmospherics in consumer’s experience and emotions. A cognitive appraisal theory approach

The present study aims to investigate the role of atmospherics in consumers’ brand experience and emotions in the museum environment. Particularly, the study focuses on the specification of the factors that lead to the manifestation of different emotions of positive valence and examines the following influence of those emotions on the attitude toward the brand and behavioral intentions. The doctoral dissertation employs a cognitive appraisal theory approach, according to which the aroused emotion depends on the appraisal of the environment’s stimuli as well as the individual’s personal goals. The conceptual model of the research suggests the modification of the traditional “Stimulus-Organism-Response” (S-O-R) Model based on cognitive appraisal theory. Specifically, the appraisals of certainty, pleasantness and attentional activity are considered regarding the determination of the visitor’s final emotion. For the purpose of the research quantitative research was conducted. The survey’s data collection was carried out in three Museums located in the city of Thessaloniki. Overall, 1.941 questionnaires were collected, and 1.513 of them were considered appropriate for data analysis. In order to test the research hypotheses, discriminant analysis and structural equation modelling were employed. The findings of the research attest that the implementation of the cognitive appraisal theory allows for a richer understanding of the multitude of positive affect compared to the traditional S-O-R model, providing important theoretical implications. The results show that the aroused emotion can be predicted with significant success from the combination of goal specificity that is related to the appraisal of certainty, and the strength of the museum brand experience, which is related to the appraisal of attentional activity. Particularly, a strong brand experience is more likely to lead to the emotion of joy when combined with specific goals, but to the emotion of surprise when combined with ambiguous goals. Conversely, a weak brand experience is more likely to lead to the emotion of contentment if combined with specific goals but to emotional neutrality if combined with ambiguous goals. Moreover, it appears that the manifestation of any of the three positive emotions under investigation is favored over emotional neutrality, as they are related to more positive evaluations of pleasantness and higher attitude towards the brand, word of mouth intentions and revisit intentions. In addition, the conceptual model of the research broadens the scientific knowledge concerning the role of atmospherics in the brand environment, revealing its interrelation with brand experience. Specifically, the role of functional design is critical for an intellectual brand experience, the role of aesthetic design is important for a sensory brand experience, the role or ambient conditions is salient for an affective brand experience and multimedia applications are critical for a behavioral and intellectual brand experience. In a managerial context, the doctoral dissertation offers a series of useful suggestions for the museum curators that specify the atmospheric factors that need to be stressed. Further, it indicates how the desired emotions depending on the museum’s objectives could be aroused.Η παρούσα έρευνα αποσκοπεί στη διερεύνηση του ρόλου της ατμόσφαιρας στη διαμόρφωση της εμπειρίας μάρκας και των συναισθημάτων του επισκέπτη μέσα στο περιβάλλον του Μουσείου. Ειδικότερα, η έρευνα επικεντρώνεται στον προσδιορισμό των παραγόντων που οδηγούν στην εκδήλωση διαφορετικών συναισθημάτων θετικού σθένους και στις μετέπειτα επιδράσεις των συναισθημάτων αυτών στη στάση απέναντι στη μάρκα και στις προθέσεις συμπεριφοράς των καταναλωτών. Η διδακτορική διατριβή βασίζεται στη θεωρία της Γνωστικής Εκτίμησης, σύμφωνα με την οποία το συναίσθημα που εκδηλώνεται είναι αποτέλεσμα της εκτίμησης των ερεθισμάτων του περιβάλλοντος σε συνάρτηση με τους προσωπικούς στόχους του ατόμου. Το θεωρητικό Μοντέλο της έρευνας προτείνει την τροποποίηση του παραδοσιακού Μοντέλου S-O-R (ερέθισμα-οργανισμός-απάντηση) βάσει της προαναφερθείσας θεωρίας και εξετάζει το ρόλο των εκτιμήσεων της δραστηριότητας προσοχής, της βεβαιότητας και της ευχαρίστησης στον προσδιορισμό του τελικού συναισθήματος του επισκέπτη. Για την πλήρωση του παραπάνω στόχου κρίθηκε σκόπιμη η διεξαγωγή ποσοτικής έρευνας πεδίου. Η διαδικασία συλλογής των δεδομένων της ποσοτικής έρευνας πραγματοποιήθηκε σε δείγμα τριών Μουσείων στην πόλη της Θεσσαλονίκης. Συνολικά συγκεντρώθηκαν 1.941 ερωτηματολόγια επισκεπτών, από τα οποία τα 1.513 κρίθηκαν αξιοποιήσιμα. Για τον έλεγχο των ερευνητικών υποθέσεων εφαρμόστηκε η μέθοδος στατιστικής επεξεργασίας της ανάλυσης διακρίνουσας και των δομικών μοντέλων εξισώσεων. Τα αποτελέσματα της έρευνας προσφέρουν σημαντικές θεωρητικές προεκτάσεις, καθώς υποστηρίζουν ότι η εφαρμογή της θεωρίας της Γνωστικής Εκτίμησης επιτρέπει μια πληρέστερη αποτύπωση της πολλαπλότητας των θετικών συναισθημάτων σε σχέση με το κλασσικό Μοντέλο S-O-R. Τα ευρήματα δείχνουν πως το συναίσθημα που θα εκδηλωθεί μπορεί να προβλεφθεί με σημαντική επιτυχία από τον συνδυασμό της εξειδίκευσης του στόχου του επισκέπτη η οποία σχετίζεται με την εκτίμηση της βεβαιότητας, και της έντασης της αντιλαμβανόμενης εμπειρίας μάρκας στο περιβάλλον του Μουσείου, η οποία σχετίζεται με την εκτίμηση της δραστηριότητας προσοχής. Ειδικότερα, μια έντονη εμπειρία μάρκας είναι πιθανότερο πως θα οδηγήσει στην εκδήλωση της χαράς όταν συνοδεύεται από σαφείς στόχους αλλά στην εκδήλωση της έκπληξης όταν συνοδεύεται από ασαφείς στόχους. Αντίθετα, μια άτονη εμπειρία μάρκας είναι πιθανότερο να οδηγήσει στην εκδήλωση ικανοποίησης όταν συνδυάζεται με σαφείς στόχους αλλά στην συναισθηματική ουδετερότητα όταν συνδυάζεται με ασαφείς στόχους. Παράλληλα, γίνεται σαφές πως η εκδήλωση οποιουδήποτε από τα τρία θετικά συναισθήματα που εξετάστηκαν είναι προτιμότερη από την συναισθηματική ουδετερότητα, καθώς συνδέονται με υψηλότερη εκτίμηση της ευχαρίστησης και υψηλότερη στάση απέναντι στη μάρκα, πρόθεση κοινωνικής διάχυσης του μηνύματος και πρόθεση επανεπίσκεψης. Επιπλέον, το μοντέλο της έρευνας επεκτείνει την επιστημονική γνώση όσον αφορά το ρόλο της ατμόσφαιρας στο περιβάλλον κατανάλωσης, αποκαλύπτοντας την αλληλεπίδρασή της με την εμπειρία μάρκας του επισκέπτη. Συγκεκριμένα, καθοριστικός είναι ο ρόλος του λειτουργικού σχεδιασμού του Μουσείου στη διανοητική διάσταση της εμπειρίας μάρκας, ο ρόλος του αισθητικού σχεδιασμού στην αισθητηριακή εμπειρία μάρκας, ο ρόλος της περιρρέουσας ατμόσφαιρας στην συναισθηματική εμπειρία μάρκας και ο ρόλος των εφαρμογών πολυμέσων στην συμπεριφορική και στην διανοητική διάσταση της εμπειρίας. Σε πρακτικό επίπεδο, η διδακτορική διατριβή παρουσιάζει μια σειρά από χρήσιμες προτάσεις προς τους αρχιτέκτονες των Μουσειακών εκθέσεων οι οποίες προσδιορίζουν τους παράγοντες της ατμόσφαιρας που θα πρέπει να τονιστούν και υποδεικνύουν τον τρόπο με τον οποίο θα εγερθούν τα επιθυμητά συναισθήματα ανάλογα με τους στόχους του κάθε ιδρύματος

Female portrayals in advertising past research, new directions

The depiction of females in advertising has received considerable academic attention, fuelled by the feminist movement and the evolution of women’s roles in the society. Early studies revealed the prevalence of traditional portrayals such as housewives, women dependent on a man’s protection and depictions of sexual objectification. Even though a decrease in female stereotyping would be reasonable considering the contemporary structure of society that prescribes multiple gender roles, this does not seem to be the case: The literature is replete with studies documenting that female stereotyping is alive and well, even if it manifests itself with different types and patterns than it did some decades ago. This study strives to adopt a holistic outlook to the phenomenon of female stereotypes in print advertisements, tracing its origins, analyzing the interplay of stereotypes and advertising, undertaking an exhaustive perusal of the particular stream of literature, addressing methodological issues and proposing directions for further research

Snapshots of men and women in interaction: an investigation of stereotypes in print advertisement relationship portrayals

This paper pursues a line of enquiry into gender stereotypes in advertising, by the exclusive examination of images of men and women in interaction. Drawing evidence from Cypriot magazine advertisements, the study employs the coding scheme developed by Goffman. The findings indicate that when males and females are framed together in advertisements, the presence of gender clichés is evident even when transcribed in a subtle fashion. Contrary to previous research, joint portrayals emphasize the relative size of men and women and men’s status superiority. Conversely, females tend to perform inferior roles, occupy less space in the advertisements, wear light clothing, and adopt postures that suggest subordination and withdrawal more often than men. In addition, differences in the degree of stereotyping were detected as general audience magazines contain advertisements with less traditional patterns compared to women’s and men’s magazines. The type of endorsed product further influences the depiction of the models, as females endorsing hedonic products are more likely to be captured in a stereotypical fashion than males

The mediating effect of brand personality on the relationship between online atmospherics and attitudes toward the site

The tremendous development of websites by a multitude of retail stores and service providers reinforced the need for optimal website design in order to attract the interest of surfers and potential consumers. This paper investigates the online atmosphere and brand personality interface. A laboratory experiment enabled the researchers to manipulate the low task relevant cues from a Museum’s website. The study findings support the positive influence of low-task relevant cues on attitudes toward the site and on surfers’ perceptions of brand personality. Moreover, the results bring to light a mediating effect of brand personality on consumers’ attitudes toward the site, suggesting a new approach regarding the examination of the particular variables

Examining consumer responses to YouTube ads through facial expressions and self-reports: the role of gender identity and emotional appeals

The study focuses on the value of gender identity as a moderator in the relationship between consumers' experienced and self-reported joy towards a YouTube video advertisement. In a laboratory experiment, participants were exposed to an emotional advertising appeal (aggressive versus warm) and their self-reports were compared with their facial expression analysis. The results show that in the warm advertising scenario, high masculine individuals who experienced joy tends to mask their emotions and under-report their level of joy. A similar reaction was recorded for low masculine individuals exposed to the aggressive advertising scenario. Self-reported joy acts, also, as a mediator of the impact of experienced joy on consumers' attitudes and purchase intentions. The findings raise significant concerns regarding the appropriateness of relying solely on self-report measures when examining constructs susceptible to social desirability issues, yielding important implications for both academics and practitioners