An Indicator to Evaluate the Environmental Impact of Olive Oil Waste Water's Shedding on Cultivated Fields

Several climatic, soil and topographic factors need to be considered when evaluating the impact of human actions on the environment. Such variables may be related in a complex way to environmental impact, thus making its evaluation difficult. Problems of this type emerge when evaluating the risks olive oil waste water pose to the environment when shed on cultivated soils. This paper proposes a fuzzy expert system to calculate a modular indicator, ICARO, which allows an evaluation of the potential environmental impact of the application of olive oil waste water in a field. Five modules were formulated, one ("Waste water") reflecting the nature of the waste water, two ("Groundwater", "Surface water") reflecting the risk for the most sensitive agro-environmental compartments (groundwater, surface water), one ("Crop") reflecting possible consequences on the cropping system adopted, and one ("Soil") reflecting the soil aptitude to receive waste waters.The input variables are therefore waste water amount and properties, site-specific conditions, and characteristics of the application considered. For each input variable, two functions describing membership to the fuzzy subsets Favorable (F) and Unfavorable (U) have been defined. The expert system calculates the value of each module according to both the degree of membership of the input variables to the subsets F and U, and a set of decision rules. The five modules can be considered individually or can be aggregated (again according to level of membership to fuzzy subsets F and U and a set of decision rules) into the synthetic indicator ICARO. Outcomes of a sensitivity analysis are presented. The system is flexible and can be used as a decision aid tool to authorize waste water's shedding or subordinate the distribution on fields to acceptance of some limitations (amount, timing, site, etc)

Diachronic analysis of farmers' strategies within a protected area of central Italy

The farm can be considered as the decision unit in the agricultural land management, therefore it is the most suitable scale to analyse the farmers’ strategies of production. In this paper we describe the results of a comparison between two enquiries carried out in 1992-93 and 2009-10 on more than 30 farms, corresponding to about 1500 ha of utilised agricultural area (UAA), within the boundaries of the San Rossore, Migliarino, Massaciuccoli Regional Park (central-western Italy). We calculate a set of agri-environmental indicators both at territory and farm scale in order to point out the changes occurred over almost twenty years in the farms’ structure, management and production features. The results showed that the major differences were related to fertilisers management (clearly decreasing), to the reduction of some crop types (industrial crops) and to the strong decrease of the gross marketable production. Furthermore, apparently stable indicators, such as the utilised agricultural area and the farm tractors’ power, were actually the result of the compensation of contrasting trends. Farmers’ behaviours were substantially homogeneous within the same typology of farm, highlighting common evolution strategies. The desirability of the occurred changes was also evaluated, underlining the improvement of environmental sustainability of the current cropping systems and a greater social acceptability of agricultural activities, while the evaluation from the farmers’ point of view was less satisfactory

Competition for Light Affects Alfalfa Biomass Production More Than Its Nutritive Value in an Olive-Based Alley-Cropping System

Cropping among trees with perennial legumes is one option for increasing agro-ecosystem services, such as improving the nitrogen supply and increasing soil protection by herbaceous vegeta-tion. Moreover, cropping under the canopy of olive trees should diversify the farm production, compared to the traditional fallow management. Among perennial legumes, alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) produces abundant biomass under Mediterranean rainfed condition. Based on this, a two-year field experiment was implemented in southern Tuscany in a rainfed olive orchard to test the competition for light effects on alfalfa biomass production and nutritive value. Light availability under the tree canopy was measured by hemispherical photos. In both years, the alfalfa yield of under-canopy varied according to the tree presence. A significant relationship between biomass production and light availability was recorded. The nutritive value of under-canopy alfalfa was similar to that of the open-grown alfalfa. However, same significant differences did however occur, between shaded and sole crop. When differences were found, under-canopy herbage was characterised by a higher content of crude protein and a lower content of fibre with respect to open-grown. In a hilly silvoarable olive orchard, alfalfa biomass accumulation was reduced mainly due to scarce light availability, therefore tree management such as pruning and plantation layout can enhance the herbage productivity. Studying shade tolerant forage legumes in order to enhance the yield and nutritive value of herbage production in rainfed agroforestry systems is essential

Greenhouse gas emissions in the agricultural phase of wine production in the Maremma rural district (Tuscany, Italy).

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest from retailers, industries and environmental associations in estimating the life cycle of greenhouse gases emitted in the atmosphere from everyday products and services, also known as carbon footprint (CF). Life cycle assessment (LCA) is the most common methodology used to evaluate the environmental impact of a product. This approach was largely used in many industrial sectors and was also recently applied to quantify the environmental impact of the agri-food chain. Within agri-food products, wine is one of the most analysed, both for its importance in economic production and in the world distribution market. The present study is a part of the Carbon Label Project carried out in the wine production chain in the Maremma rural district (Tuscany, Italy). The project assessed the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wine production for labelling purposes. Here, we evaluated the environmental performances of four high quality wines for carbon labelling. The international standards ISO 14040, ISO 14044, and the Product Category Rules (PCR) Wine from Fresh Grapes (except sparkling wine) and Grape Must for the Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) certification, specifically for Climate Declaration, were used in order to carry out our analyses. The functional unit (FU) used here was one 0.75 L bottle of wine. The system boundaries were set from the vineyard planting to the distribution and waste disposal. The global warming potential (GWP) of four investigated wines was found to lie between 0.6 and 1.3 kg CO2-eq./bottle, showing a value comparable with literature. With all the four wines analysed, the agricultural phase covered, on average, 22% of the total GWP/bottle, while the main impact was in the production of the glass bottle. The results showed that the vineyard-planting phase has a significant impact on the wine CF, thus it has to be considered in the life cycle, while in literature it is frequently omitted. On the contrary, the pre-production phase did not present a relevant impact. The use of nitrogen fertilisers, the grapes’ yield and N2O emissions were the parameters that mostly affected the carbon footprint in the agricultural phase, as underlined by the sensitivity analysis

Fine-scale fern ecological responses inform on riparian forest habitat conservation status

The recognition of the ecological quality of ecosystems and habitats therein is increasingly important in the Anthropocene. However, there are still scarcely explored ways of how and what to assess to obtain a sound ecological status of habitats. Ferns are an understudied plant group, especially given their usefulness as ecological indicators. Disentangling biotic and abiotic factors that drive fine-scale fern distribution could provide insight into the quality of their habitats. We investigated the environmental factors affecting the distribution of different largely distributed fern species in Europe. We studied their presence and abundance at different life stages in a forest habitat of European priority conservation concern. Our aim was to understand whether fern species can be used as an ecological indicator group in riparian alderwood habitat. We sampled 120 plots of 50 m(2) in randomly selected transects along streams of a riparian forest habitat characterized by the presence of many fern species in the understory, controlling for the effects of geology and elevation. Within each plot, fern species were recorded, including vegetative and generative stages of each ramet (rosette of fronds). We modelled fern occurrence and abundance for the different fern life stages, and diversity indices of the fern community in relation to environmental predictors. We found that population- and community-level responses of ferns mainly depended on soil granulometry and, to a lesser extent, moss cover and stream orientation. We also found that the generative life stage compared to the vegetative adult stage benefits from different ecological characteristics for certain fern species. Alterations of the natural hydrology might lead to a general deterioration in habitat quality for ferns. We suggest that some fern species acting as early-warning species, and potentially their life stages, can be used as an ecological quality indicator for riparian forest habitats. This study deepened the understanding of the fine-scale ecology of an array of European ferns in riparian forests and provides valuable information to assist in the conservation of fern species and their populations

Suitability of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) as a forage crop in the Mediterranean area

In Mediterranean rainfed cropping systems, drought-resistant crops can increase yield and availability of forage during the summer period. In North America, switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) has been used for decades as pasture and fodder. In Europe, switchgrass has been investigated mainly for its potential as an energy crop. e overall aim of the present study was to analyse the suitability of switchgrass as a forage crop in a Mediterranean environment. A eld trial was carried out in Central Italy (Pisa) to evaluate the productivity and nutritive value in mature stands of two switchgrass varieties (Alamo and Blackwell). Alamo reached the maturity for hay harvest (boot stage) in August, about one-month delay with respect to Blackwell. At this stage, the biomass was 13.3 and 7.5 t ha-1 of dry matter (DM) in Alamo and Blackwell, respectively. Both varieties produced a summer regrowth harvested in autumn. Nutritive value declined during the growing season due to the increase of bre and the reduction of protein content. Saponin content signi cantly di ered between varieties and according to the growth stage, ranging from 1.8 to 4.5 mg g-1 DM. is study provides useful knowledge to favour the introduction of perennial grasses as forage crops in the Mediterranean, leading to several environmental bene ts when compared with the annual species that currently cover half of the forage cropland in Tuscany

Probabilistic and preferential sampling approaches offer integrated perspectives of Italian forest diversity

Aim: Assessing the performances of different sampling approaches for documenting community diversity may help to identify optimal sampling efforts and strategies, and to enhance conservation and monitoring planning. Here, we used two data sets based on probabilistic and preferential sampling schemes of Italian forest vegetation to analyze the multifaceted performances of the two approaches across three major forest types at a large scale. Location: Italy. Methods: We pooled 804 probabilistic and 16,259 preferential forest plots as samples of vascular plant diversity across the country. We balanced the two data sets in terms of sizes, plot size, geographical position, and vegetation types. For each of the two data sets, 1000 subsets of 201 random plots were compared by calculating the shared and exclusive indicator species, their overlap in the multivariate space, and the areas encompassed by spatially-constrained rarefaction curves. We then calculated an index of performance using the ratio between the additional and total information collected by each sampling approach. The performances were tested and evaluated across the three major forest types. Results: The probabilistic approach performed better in estimating species richness and diversity of species assemblages, but did not detect other components of the regional diversity, such as azonal forests. The preferential approach outperformed the probabilistic approach in detecting forest-specialist species and plant diversity hotspots. Conclusions: Using a novel workflow based on vegetation-plot exclusivities and commonalities, our study suggests probabilistic and preferential sampling approaches are to be used in combination for better conservation and monitor planning purposes to detect multiple aspects of plant community diversity. Our findings can assist the implementation of national conservation planning and large-scale monitoring of biodiversity