Good Growth and Governance for Africa: Rethinking Development Strategies: Introduction and Overview

When the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa achieved independence in rapid succession starting with Ghana in 1957, there were high hopes for the region. A group of outstanding leaders would inspire to bring a new era to a sub-continent long suffering from colonial exploitation and developmental neglect. What has happened since has been disappointing: whilst standard economic theory predicts a convergence in economic outcomes, with those countries with lower per capita incomes growing faster than those with higher, there has been divergence, particularly for Sub-Saharan Africa, with incomes per capita in the region stagnating over 1960-2000 (as the gains of the first two decades of that period were wiped out in the next two) and poverty increased when in the rest of the world per capita incomes more than doubled and in some of the most successful developing countries increased four-fold or more (see the figures in Section II). Only the few years before the global economic crisis of 2008 brought respite to this picture of gloom for Africa, as annual growth soared to some 6% during 2006 and 2007, with only the East and South Asian regions exceeding it by a significant margin, but even this period of optimism appears fragile and built on soaring resource prices as much as anything else. This naturally raises the question: Why has the economic growth performance of Sub- Saharan Africa (hereinafter Africa) been so disappointing and more to the point, what are the policy options for reversing that trend? What are the possibilities and policies for Africa to achieve sustained, rapid economic growth and associated structural transformations and begin to catch-up

Learning, Industrial, and Technology Policies: An Overview

Many of the most fundamental and frequent controversies in economics revolve around two related sets of issues: the salience and significance of market failures and the role of the state in overcoming them. They arise in a particularly acute form in the literature on industrial policies. Broadly understood, industrial policy refers to public policy measures aimed at influencing the allocation and accumulation of resources, and the choice of technologies. A particularly important set of industrial policies, at the center of many of the chapters in this volume, comprises those targeted at activities that promote learning and technological upgrading. They are sometimes more accurately labeled as learning, industrial and technology (LIT) policies. We use the term to cover both deliberate and self-described industrial policies as well as policies that have a similar effect though they are not labeled as “industrial policies” (this is particularly well illustrated by Antonio Andreoni's contribution, chapter 9)

Introduction and Overview: Economic Transformation and Learning, Industrial, and Technology Policies in Africa

This chapter is an introduction and overview of "Industrial Policy and Economic Transformation in Africa." The main objective of the contributions in this volume is to shed light on how to vigorously promote economic transformation. They emphasize the vital role of industrial policies. It is perhaps noteworthy that the two economies among the fastest-growing in Africa in this century did not rely on an oil boom: Ethiopia and Rwanda pursued to varying degrees deliberate policies of government interventions of the type we label industrial policies. These two countries were consciously and explicitly influenced by the successful experiences with industrial policies of the most successful East Asian countries (see World Bank 1993; Stiglitz and Uy 1996). We provide a quick overview of Africa's development experience in the next three short sections in order to provide a context for the two longer ones concerning the main themes of this volume. "Static Efficiency vs. Dynamic Gains: Learning, Industrial, and Technology Policies" examines the need and possibilities of learning, industrial, and technology policies in the region, and the last section provides an overview of the other chapters in this volume and how they contribute to that aim

Qualitative characterization of healthcare wastes

The biological hazard inherent in the clinical wastes should be considered during the management and treatment process as well as the disposal into the environment. In this chapter, the risks associated with the clinical wastes as well as the management of these wastes are discussed. The chapter focused on reviewing the types of healthcare wastes generated from hospitals and clinics as well as the regulations and management practices used for these wastes. Moreover, the health risk associated with the infectious agents which have the potential to be transmitted into the environment. It has appeared that the clinical wastes represent real hazards for the human health and the environment if they were not managed properly

A New Sensorless Hybrid MPPT Algorithm Based on Fractional Short-Circuit Current Measurement and P&O MPPT

This paper presents a new maximum power point tracking (MPPT) method for photovoltaic (PV) systems. The proposed method improves the working of the conventional perturb and observe (P&O) method in changing environmental conditions by using the fractional short-circuit current (FSCC) method. It takes the initial operating point of a PV system by using the short-circuit current method and later shifts to the conventional P&O technique. The advantage of having this two-stage algorithm is rapid tracking under changing environmental conditions. In addition, this scheme offers low-power oscillations around MPP and, therefore, more power harvesting compared with the common P&O method. The proposed MPPT decides intelligently about the moment of measuring short-circuit current and is, therefore, an irradiance sensorless scheme. The proposed method is validated with computer software simulation followed by a dSPACE DS1104-based experimental setup. A buck-boost dc-dc converter is used for simulation and experimental confirmation. Furthermore, the reliability of the proposed method is also calculated. The results show that the proposed MPPT technique works satisfactorily under given environmental scenarios

N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and the prediction of primary cardiovascular events: results from 15-year follow-up of WOSCOPS

<b>Aims:</b>To test whether N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) was independently associated with, and improved the prediction of, cardiovascular disease (CVD) in a primary prevention cohort. <b>Methods and results:</b> In the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study (WOSCOPS), a cohort of middle-aged men with hypercholesterolaemia at a moderate risk of CVD, we related the baseline NT-proBNP (geometric mean 28 pg/mL) in 4801 men to the risk of CVD over 15 years during which 1690 experienced CVD events. Taking into account the competing risk of non-CVD death, NT-proBNP was associated with an increased risk of all CVD [HR: 1.17 (95% CI: 1.11–1.23) per standard deviation increase in log NT-proBNP] after adjustment for classical and clinical cardiovascular risk factors plus C-reactive protein. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide was more strongly related to the risk of fatal [HR: 1.34 (95% CI: 1.19–1.52)] than non-fatal CVD [HR: 1.17 (95% CI: 1.10–1.24)] (P= 0.022). The addition of NT-proBNP to traditional risk factors improved the C-index (+0.013; P < 0.001). The continuous net reclassification index improved with the addition of NT-proBNP by 19.8% (95% CI: 13.6–25.9%) compared with 9.8% (95% CI: 4.2–15.6%) with the addition of C-reactive protein. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide correctly reclassified 14.7% of events, whereas C-reactive protein correctly reclassified 3.4% of events. Results were similar in the 4128 men without evidence of angina, nitrate prescription, minor ECG abnormalities, or prior cerebrovascular disease. <b>Conclusion:</b> N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide predicts CVD events in men without clinical evidence of CHD, angina, or history of stroke, and appears related more strongly to the risk for fatal events. N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide also provides moderate risk discrimination, in excess of that provided by the measurement of C-reactive protein

HIV-1 Replication Is Differentially Regulated by Distinct Clinical Strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

(MTb), the causative agent of TB, are known to modify the host immune response in a strain-specific manner. However, a MTb strain-specific impact upon the regulation of HIV-1 replication has not previously been established.. Furthermore, we show that the distinct pattern of CDC1551 or HN878 induced HIV-1 replication is associated with significantly increased levels of TNF and IL-6, and of the transcription and nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit of the transcription factor NF-κB, by CDC1551 relative to HN878.These results provide a precedent for TB strain-specific effects upon HIV-1 replication and thus for TB strain-specific pathogenesis in the outcome of HIV-1/TB co-infection. MTb strain-specific factors and mechanisms involved in the regulation of HIV-1 during co-infection will be of importance in understanding the basic pathogenesis of HIV-1/TB co-infection

Development and Validation of Novel PCR Assays for the Diagnosis of Bovine Stephanofilariasis and Detection of Stephanofilaria sp. Nematodes in Vector Flies

Background: Stephanofilaria spp. nematodes are associated with cutaneous lesions in cattle and other livestock and mammalian wildlife species. In Australia, Haematobia irritans exigua, commonly known as buffalo fly (BF) transmits a well-described but presently unnamed species of Stephanofilaria, which has been speculatively implicated in the aetiology of BF lesions. The sensitivity of current techniques for detecting Stephanofilaria spp. in skin lesions and vector species is low, and there is no genomic sequence for any member of the genus Stephanofilaria currently available in sequence databases. Methods: To develop molecular assays for the detection of the Australian Stephanofilaria sp., skin biopsies were collected from freshly slaughtered cattle with typical lesions near the medial canthus. Adult nematodes and microfilariae were isolated from the biopsies using a saline recovery technique. The nematodes were morphologically identified as Stephanofilaria sp. by scanning electron microscopy. DNA was extracted and the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) region of rDNA, and the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) region of mtDNA was amplified and sequenced. Stephanofilaria sp. specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and qPCR assays (SYBR Green® and TaqMan™) were developed and optimised from the novel ITS2 sequence obtained. The specificity of each assay was confirmed by testing against nematode species Onchocerca gibsoni and Dirofilaria immitis, as well as host (bovine) and BF DNA. Results: Scanning electron microscopy of the anterior and posterior ends of isolated nematodes confirmed Stephanofilaria sp. A phylogenetic analysis of the cox1 sequence demonstrated that this species is most closely related to Thelazia callipaeda, a parasitic nematode that is a common cause of thelaziasis (or eyeworm infestation) in humans, dogs, and cats. Both conventional and qPCR assays specifically amplified DNA from Stephanofilaria sp. Conventional PCR, TaqMan™, and SYBR Green® assays were shown to detect 1 ng, 1 pg, and 100 fg of Stephanofilaria DNA, respectively. Both qPCR assays detected DNA from single Stephanofilaria microfilaria. Conclusion: Molecular diagnostic assays developed in this study showed high specificity and sensitivity for Stephanofilaria sp. DNA. The availability of an accurate and sensitive PCR assay for Stephanofilaria will assist in determining its role in the pathogenesis of cattle skin lesions, as well as in understanding its epidemiological dynamics. This assay may also have application for use in epidemiological studies with other species of Stephanofilaria, most particularly closely related S. stilesi, but this will require confirmation

Role of Staphylococcus agnetis and Staphylococcus hyicus in the Pathogenesis of Buffalo Fly Skin Lesions in Cattle

Buffalo flies (Haematobia irritans exigua) are hematophagous ectoparasites of cattle causing production and welfare impacts in northern Australian herds. Skin lesions associated with buffalo fly infestation and Stephanofilaria nematode infection are manifested as focal dermatitis or ulcerated areas, most commonly on the medial canthus of the eye, along the lateral and ventral neck, and on the abdomen of cattle. For closely related horn flies (Haematobia irritans irritans), Staphylococcus aureus has been suggested as a contributing factor in the development of lesions. To investigate the potential role of bacterial infection in the pathogenesis of buffalo fly lesions, swabs were taken from lesions and normal skin, and bacteria were also isolated from surface washings of buffalo flies and surface-sterilized homogenized flies. Bacterial identification was conducted by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization–time of flight (MALDI-TOF) and strain typing by repetitive sequence-based PCR (rep-PCR) and DNA sequencing to determine species similarity and virulence factors. Of 50 bacterial isolates collected from lesions, 38 were identified as Staphylococcus agnetis and 12 as Staphylococcus hyicus, whereas four isolates from normal skin were S. hyicus and one was Mammaliicoccus sciuri. Of the Staphylococcus isolates isolated from buffalo flies, five were identified as S. agnetis and three as S. hyicus. Fifty percent of the buffalo fly isolates had rep-PCR genotypic patterns identical to those of the lesion isolates. Genome sequencing of 16 S. agnetis and four S. hyicus isolates revealed closely similar virulence factor profiles, with all isolates possessing exfoliative toxin A and C genes. The findings from this study suggest the involvement of S. agnetis and S. hyicus in buffalo fly lesion pathogenesis. This should be taken into account in the development of effective treatment and control strategies for lesions