Effects of Dry and Liquid Pellet Binder Inclusion and Conditioning Temperature on Pellet Mill Efficiency and Pellet Quality of a High-Fiber Ruminant Ration

The objectives of this experiment were: 1) to determine the effects of sucrose and lactose-based liquid ingredient inclusion on the pelleting efficiency and quality of a high-fiber diet; and 2) to evaluate the role of mash conditioning temperature on the binding effectiveness of the tested liquid ingredients. Binders included DLS (dry calcium lignosulfonate), LCM (liquid cane molasses), LMB (commercial liquid molasses blend), and LLB (commercial liquid lactose blend). Treatments were arranged in a 5 × 3 factorial of pellet binder (control, DLS, LCM, LMB, and LLB) and conditioning temperature (165, 175, and 185°F). Data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS with linear and quadratic contrasts for increasing conditioning temperature. Treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design and replicated 3 times. Diets were conditioned for approximately 40 s and pelleted with a 0.19 × 1.75 in. die at a rate of 3.0 ton/h. Pellet durability index (PDI) was determined using the standard and modified tumble box methods. There was no evidence of an interaction (P \u3e 0.209) between binder type and conditioning temperature when determining PDI according to either the standard or modified tumble box methods. Conditioning temperature alone did not affect PDI (P \u3e 0.119); however, differences were observed based on binder inclusion according to either method (P \u3c 0.046). Using the standard method of analysis, PDI was improved (P \u3c 0.046) by LCM and LLS addition compared to both the control and LCM diets, while LLB was intermediate. According to the modified method with greater agitative stress, PDI was improved (P \u3c 0.005) when using LCM and LLB compared to the control diet, with DLS and LCM being intermediate. Additionally, LCM inclusion reduced (P \u3c 0.001) pellet mill throughput and increased (P \u3c 0.001) energy consumption of the pellet mill motor compared to the control and other binders, with no observed differences (P \u3c 0.269) resulting from increased conditioning temperature. Under the constraints of this trial, cane molasses and commercial molasses and lactose blends were shown to be effective pellet binders, regardless of conditioning temperature when included in a high-fiber ration. However, challenges with molasses handling characteristics and increased friction at the die interface may reduce its practical application and encourage the use of the alternative commercial blends

Effects of Conditioning Temperature and Pellet Mill Die Speed on Pellet Quality and Relative Stabilities of Phytase and Xylanase

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of conditioning temperature and die speed on pellet quality and enzyme stability of phytase and xylanase. Treatments were initially arranged as a 2 × 3 factorial of conditioning temperature (165 and 185°F) and die speed (127, 190, and 254 rpm); however, when conditioning at 185°F it was not possible to pellet at 127 rpm. Thus, data were analyzed in 2 different segments using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. First, linear and quadratic contrasts were utilized to test the response to increasing die speed at 165°F. Second, the data were analyzed as a 2 × 2 factorial of conditioning temperature (165 and 185°F) and die speed (190 and 254 rpm). Treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design and replicated 3 times. Diets were conditioned for approximately 30 s and pelleted with a 3/16 in. diameter × 1 3/4 in. effective length die at a rate of 5 ton/h. Pellet durability index (PDI) was determined using the tumble box and Holmen NHP 100 methods. Samples of the unconditioned mash (M), conditioned mash (CM), and pellets (P) were collected and analyzed for phytase and xylanase concentration. Relative enzyme stabilities were expressed as CM:M and P:M. Stabilities expressed as P:M were used an indication of enzyme stability through the entire pelleting process. Diets conditioned at 165°F showed no evidence of difference in phytase or xylanase P:M stability when decreasing die speed from 254 to 127 rpm. However, when conditioning diets at 165°F, decreasing die speed increased (linear, P \u3c 0.001) PDI. There was no conditioning temperature × die speed interaction for overall xylanase P:M stability or PDI. However, there was a conditioning temperature × die speed interaction (P \u3c 0.01) for phytase P:M stability. When conditioning diets at 185°F, increasing die speed decreased phytase P:M stability. However, when conditioning at 165°F, increasing die speed did not influence phytase P:M stability. For main effects of conditioning temperature, increasing temperature improved (P \u3c 0.001) PDI with no evidence of difference for xylanase P:M stability. For the main effects of die speed (254 vs. 190 rpm), decreasing die speed decreased (P \u3c 0.001) the P:M xylanase stability, but there was no evidence of difference for PDI. The results of this trial indicate that die speed should be taken into consideration when evaluating enzyme stability of both phytase and xylanase as pellet mill models may be operating at different speeds. Additionally, increasing conditioning temperature will improve PDI, but may result in decreased phytase stability

Effect of Feed Form, Corn Particle Size, and Extrusion of Corn on Broiler Performance

The pelleting and extrusion processes use both thermal and mechanical energies to alter the crystalline structure of the starch granule, which makes it more digestible than raw starch. The particle size of the ground corn particle in the diet also affects the rate at which gelatinization occurs in the extrusion process. There is limited research on broiler performance when feeding diets that contain different particle sizes of corn prior to extrusion. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of feed form, corn particle size and the extrusion of corn on growth performance of 21-d-old broiler chicks. To determine the effect of corn type on growth performance, treatments were arranged in a 2 × 3 factorial of corn type (raw corn and extruded corn) and corn particle size (400, 800, and 1200 μm). There was no interaction (P \u3e 0.742) between corn type and corn particle size on d 21 BW, ADFI, or feed conversion ratio (FCR). Broilers fed the raw corn diet had greater (P \u3c 0.001) d 21 BW and ADFI compared to those fed the extruded corn diets. There was no evidence of difference (P \u3e 0.081) in d 21 BW and ADFI in broilers fed the three different corn particle sizes. Broilers fed diets with increasing corn particle size had increased (linear, P = 0.015) FCR. There was an interaction (P \u3c 0.039) between corn type and corn particle size on both the relative gizzard and pancreas weights of broilers. To determine the effects of feed form on growth performance and relative gizzard and pancreas weight, treatments were arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial of feed form (mash and crumble feed) and corn particle size (400 and 800 μm). There was no evidence of interaction (P \u3e 0.180) between feed form and corn particle size on growth performance or relative gizzard and pancreas weight. Broilers fed the crumble extruded corn diet had increased (P = 0.001) d 21 BW and ADFI compared to those fed the mash extruded corn diets. There was no evidence of difference (P \u3e 0.189) in d 21 BW, ADFI, and FCR between broilers fed extruded diets containing 400 μm corn and 800 μm corn regardless of feed form. Broilers fed the mash extruded corn diet had greater (P \u3c 0.001) relative gizzard and pancreas weights as compared to those fed the crumbled extruded corn diets. In addition, broiler relative gizzard weight was greater (P = 0.002) for those fed the extruded corn diet containing 800 μm versus 400 μm corn, while there was no evidence of difference in relative pancreas weight. Therefore, increasing the amount of gelatinized starch in the feed by replacing ground corn with extruded corn in a broiler starter diet did not improve growth performance. Increasing corn particle size led to improved gizzard development

The Effect of Different Inclusion Levels of Corn Starch and Fine Ground Corn With Different Conditioning Temperature or Die Thickness on Pellet Quality

Feeding a greater percentage of whole pellets to poultry and swine provides a greater return on investment for producers. Pellet binders are commonly used in commercial feed mills, but the added cost has limited their use in poultry and swine feed mills. Corn starch could be a potential natural binder for feed as it is for biomass pellet operations. Therefore, the objective of these experiments was to determine the effect of different inclusion levels of corn starch and fine ground corn with different conditioning temperature or die thickness on pellet quality. In, Experiment 1, treatments were arranged in 3 × 2 factorial design of corn starch inclusion level (0%, 5%, and 10%) and die thickness (1/2 in. and 7/8 in.). In Experiment 2, treatments were arranged in 3 × 2 factorial design of fine ground corn inclusion level (0%, 10%, and 20%) and conditioning temperature (175 and 185°F). For Exp. 1, there was a corn starch by die thickness interaction (P = 0.033; Table 3) on pellet durability index (PDI). Increasing concentration of corn starch from 0 to 10% in the diet decreased PDI when diets were pelleted using the ½ in. thick die. However, there was no evidence of difference in PDI when corn starch was increased from 0 to 10% and diets were pelleted using the 7/8 in. die. There was no evidence of an interaction between corn starch inclusion level and die thickness on modified PDI. Increasing die thickness from 1/2 in. to 7/8 in. increased (P = 0.001) modified PDI. There was a linear decrease (P \u3c 0.001) in modified PDI as the corn starch inclusion level increased. For Exp. 2, there was no evidence for interaction between fine ground corn inclusion level and conditioning temperature on PDI (P \u3e 0.541). There was no evidence of difference in PDI with increasing fine ground corn inclusion. Increasing conditioning temperature from 175 to 185°F increased (P \u3c 0.0001) standard and modified PDI. In conclusion, the use of pure corn starch was not an effective binding agent in the feed when the diet contained at least 60% ground corn. The ratio of small corn particles to large corn particles in the diet did not impact pellet quality when the diets were conditioned above 175°F for 35 s and then pelleted with a 5.6 L:D die. Increasing die thickness and conditioning temperature improved pellet quality

The Effect of Screen Hole Diameter and Hammer Tip Speed on the Subsequent Particle Size of Ground Corn Analyzed With and Without Sieving Agent

Reducing the particle size of grains increases the ratio of surface area to volume which provides digestive enzymes greater access to nutrients, therefore improving utilization of the feed. Hammermills are a very cost-effective method of reducing grains to very fine particle sizes for feeding. A variety of settings can be changed on hammermills to achieve a target particle size. Thus, the objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of screen hole diameter, hammer tip speed, and the inclusion of a sieving agent on the particle size of corn. Treatments were arranged in a 4 × 6 × 2 factorial with screen hole diameter (10/64, 12/64, 16/64, 24/64 in.), hammer tip speed (20,500, 18,450, 16,400, 14,350, 12,300, and 10,250 ft/min), and particle size analytical method (with and without sieving agent). All treatments were ground using a Bliss Hammermill (Model 22115) equipped with a variable frequency drive (VFD) and a 25 HP motor. The screen hole diameter and hammer tip speed were randomized to reduce the effects of grinding and sampling order. There were 3 replicates per treatment. Samples were analyzed for geometric mean diameter (dgw) and standard deviation (Sgw) of the particle size. There was no evidence of a screen hole diameter × hammer tip speed × sieving agent interaction for all variables (P \u3e 0.327). There was a linear screen hole diameter × linear hammer tip speed interaction (P \u3c 0.001) for dgw. When increasing tip speed from 10,250 to 20,500 ft/min, the rate of decrease in dgw was greater as screen hole diameter increased from 10/64 to 24/64. There was a quadratic screen hole diameter × linear hammer tip speed interaction (P \u3c 0.035) for Sgw. When increasing the screen size from 10/64 to 24/64, the rate of increase in Sgw was greater as tip speed increased from 10,250 to 16,400 ft/min and was similar from 16,400 to 20,500 ft/min. There was no evidence of a screen hole diameter × hammer tip speed interaction for percent fines (P \u3e 0.153). There was no evidence of a screen hole diameter × sieving agent or hammer tip speed × sieving agent interaction for dgw or Sgw (P \u3e 0.540). There was a linear screen hole diameter × sieving agent interaction (P \u3c 0.001) for percent fines. When increasing the screen size from 10/64 to 24/64, the rate of decrease in percent of fine particles was greater when sieving agent was used compared to when it wasn’t used. The results of this trial indicate that the particle size range for a specified hammermill screen size can be altered by adjusting the hammer tip speed with a VFD. Additionally, particle size should be determined with the addition of sieving agent during analysis to more accurately characterize the particle size distribution, especially of finer particles that may influence flowability or animal intake

Role of cellular senescence and NOX4-mediated oxidative stress in systemic sclerosis pathogenesis.

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by progressive fibrosis of skin and numerous internal organs and a severe fibroproliferative vasculopathy resulting frequently in severe disability and high mortality. Although the etiology of SSc is unknown and the detailed mechanisms responsible for the fibrotic process have not been fully elucidated, one important observation from a large US population study was the demonstration of a late onset of SSc with a peak incidence between 45 and 54 years of age in African-American females and between 65 and 74 years of age in white females. Although it is not appropriate to consider SSc as a disease of aging, the possibility that senescence changes in the cellular elements involved in its pathogenesis may play a role has not been thoroughly examined. The process of cellular senescence is extremely complex, and the mechanisms, molecular events, and signaling pathways involved have not been fully elucidated; however, there is strong evidence to support the concept that oxidative stress caused by the excessive generation of reactive oxygen species may be one important mechanism involved. On the other hand, numerous studies have implicated oxidative stress in SSc pathogenesis, thus, suggesting a plausible mechanism in which excessive oxidative stress induces cellular senescence and that the molecular events associated with this complex process play an important role in the fibrotic and fibroproliferative vasculopathy characteristic of SSc. Here, recent studies examining the role of cellular senescence and of oxidative stress in SSc pathogenesis will be reviewed

The role of the muscarinic system in regulating estradiol secretion varies during the estrous cycle: the hemiovariectomized rat model

There is evidence that one gonad has functional predominance. The present study analyzed the acute effects of unilateral ovariectomy (ULO) and blocking the cholinergic system, by injecting atropine sulfate (ATR), on estradiol (E(2)) serum concentrations during the estrous cycle. The results indicate that ULO effects on E(2 )concentrations are asymmetric, vary during the estrous cycle, and partially depend on the cholinergic innervation. Perforation of the left peritoneum resulted in lower E(2 )serum concentrations in the three stages of the estrous cycle. At proestrus, unilateral or bilateral perforation of the peritoneum resulted in lower E(2 )serum concentrations. ULO of the right ovary (left ovary in situ) resulted in significantly higher E(2 )concentrations than animals with ULO of the left ovary (right ovary in situ). ATR treatment to ULO rats on D1 resulted in a significant drop of E(2 )serum concentrations. ULO rats treated with ATR on D2 or P, resulted in an asymmetrical E(2) secretion response; when the right ovary remained in situ an increase in E(2) was observed, and a decrease when the left ovary remained in situ. The results obtained in the present study suggest that each ovary's ability to compensate the secretion of E(2 )from the missing ovary is different and varies during the estrous cycle. The results also suggest that the cholinergic system participates in regulating ovarian E(2 )secretion. Such participation varies according to the ovary remaining in situ and the stage of the estrous cycle of the animal. The results agree with previously stated hypothesis of a neural pathway arising from the peritoneum that participates in regulating E(2 )secretion, and also supports the idea of cross-talk between the ovaries, via a neural communication, that modulates E(2 )secretion

Lipoic acid plays a role in scleroderma: insights obtained from scleroderma dermal fibroblasts

Abstract Introduction Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a connective tissue disease characterized by fibrosis of the skin and organs. Increase in oxidative stress and platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR) activation promote type I collagen (Col I) production, leading to fibrosis in SSc. Lipoic acid (LA) and its active metabolite dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) are naturally occurring thiols that act as cofactors and antioxidants and are produced by lipoic acid synthetase (LIAS). Our goals in this study were to examine whether LA and LIAS were deficient in SSc patients and to determine the effect of DHLA on the phenotype of SSc dermal fibroblasts. N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a commonly used thiol antioxidant, was included as a comparison. Methods Dermal fibroblasts were isolated from healthy subjects and patients with diffuse cutaneous SSc. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs), tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMP), plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) and LIAS were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The expression of Col I was measured by immunofluorescence, hydroxyproline assay and quantitative PCR. PDGFR phosphorylation and α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) were measured by Western blotting. Student’s t-tests were performed for statistical analysis, and P-values less than 0.05 with two-tailed analysis were considered statistically significant. Results The expression of LA and LIAS in SSc dermal fibroblasts was lower than normal fibroblasts; however, LIAS was significantly higher in SSc plasma and appeared to be released from monocytes. DHLA lowered cellular oxidative stress and decreased PDGFR phosphorylation, Col I, PAI-1 and αSMA expression in SSc dermal fibroblasts. It also restored the activities of phosphatases that inactivated the PDGFR. SSc fibroblasts produced lower levels of MMP-1 and MMP-3, and DHLA increased them. In contrast, TIMP-1 levels were higher in SSc, but DHLA had a minimal effect. Both DHLA and NAC increased MMP-1 activity when SSc cells were stimulated with PDGF. In general, DHLA showed better efficacy than NAC in most cases. Conclusions DHLA acts not only as an antioxidant but also as an antifibrotic because it has the ability to reverse the profibrotic phenotype of SSc dermal fibroblasts. Our study suggests that thiol antioxidants, including NAC, LA, or DHLA, could be beneficial for patients with SSc.http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/112060/1/13075_2014_Article_411.pd

Impaired LAIR-1-mediated immune control due to collagen degradation in fibrosis

Tissue repair is disturbed in fibrotic diseases like systemic sclerosis (SSc), where the deposition of large amounts of extracellular matrix components such as collagen interferes with organ function. LAIR-1 is an inhibitory collagen receptor highly expressed on tissue immune cells. We questioned whether in SSc, impaired LAIR-1-collagen interaction is contributing to the ongoing inflammation and fibrosis. We found that SSc patients do not have an intrinsic defect in LAIR-1 expression or function. Instead, fibroblasts from healthy controls and SSc patients stimulated by soluble factors that drive inflammation and fibrosis in SSc deposit disorganized collagen products in vitro, which are dysfunctional LAIR-1 ligands. This is dependent of matrix metalloproteinases and platelet-derived growth factor receptor signaling. In support of a non-redundant role of LAIR-1 in the control of fibrosis, we found that LAIR-1-deficient mice have increased skin fibrosis in response to repeated injury and in the bleomycin mouse model for SSc. Thus, LAIR-1 represents an essential control mechanism for tissue repair. In fibrotic disease, excessive collagen degradation may lead to a disturbed feedback loop. The presence of functional LAIR-1 in patients provides a therapeutic opportunity to reactivate this intrinsic negative feedback mechanism in fibrotic diseases