Human cell types important for Hepatitis C Virus replication in vivo and in vitro. Old assertions and current evidence

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) is a single stranded RNA virus which produces negative strand RNA as a replicative intermediate. We analyzed 75 RT-PCR studies that tested for negative strand HCV RNA in liver and other human tissues. 85% of the studies that investigated extrahepatic replication of HCV found one or more samples positive for replicative RNA. Studies using in situ hybridization, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, and quasispecies analysis also demonstrated the presence of replicating HCV in various extrahepatic human tissues, and provide evidence that HCV replicates in macrophages, B cells, T cells, and other extrahepatic tissues. We also analyzed both short term and long term in vitro systems used to culture HCV. These systems vary in their purposes and methods, but long term culturing of HCV in B cells, T cells, and other cell types has been used to analyze replication. It is therefore now possible to study HIV-HCV co-infections and HCV replication in vitro

Current and potential uses of composted olive oil waste

Food industry will have to focus on waste avoidance as well as utilisation of process waste. Application of clean technologies greatly enhances the safety and quality of the product as well as reducing the energy requirements and environmental impact of the food industry. The main environmental impacts of the food sector are aquatic, atmospheric and solid waste emissions. Nowadays, the main treatment method of solid wastes is composting, while recovery and reuse of by-products and wastes as raw materials stand for another effective option (http:// www.oulu.fi/resopt/wasmin/pap.pdf). Composted olive oil waste can find applications (1) as amendment in agriculture because of its high nitrogen and phosphorus content, (2) as a biofertiliser, with a mixture of compost with Sphagnum peat or commercial substrate finding use for ornamental plants growth and (3) as a biofilter for toxic metal removal. However, there are a number of disadvantages as well, such as large decline of soil germination capability, necrosis of the leaves and slow emission of secondary stems, and enhanced phytotoxicity, because of pH neutralisation technique, which should be seriously taken into account prior to opting for composting as a promising waste treatment alternative