Is the European Union ready for foreign direct investment from emerging markets?

This chapter asks whether the European Union Member States are ready for inward Foreign Direct Investment from the Emerging Markets. It concludes that European Union Member States have relatively open Foreign Direct Investment regimes in the international context, and yet instances of protectionism have been apparent in the recent period. However, protectionism has occurred both vis-a-vis Foreign Direct Investment from the Global South as well as from within the European Union, particularly in the so-called 'strategic' industries

Matrix metalloproteinase 7 is associated with symptomatic lesions and adverse events in patients with carotid atherosclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerosis is a major cause of cerebrovascular disease. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play an important role in matrix degradation within the atherosclerotic lesion leading to plaque destabilization and ischemic stroke. We hypothesized that MMP-7 could be involved in this process. METHODS: Plasma levels of MMP-7 were measured in 182 consecutive patients with moderate (50-69%) or severe (≥70%) internal carotid artery stenosis, and in 23 healthy controls. The mRNA levels of MMP-7 were measured in atherosclerotic carotid plaques with different symptomatology, and based on its localization to macrophages, the in vitro regulation of MMP-7 in primary monocytes was examined. RESULTS: Our major findings were (i) Patients with carotid atherosclerosis had markedly increased plasma levels of MMP-7 compared to healthy controls, with particularly high levels in patients with recent symptoms (i.e., within the last 2 months). (ii) A similar pattern was found within carotid plaques with markedly higher mRNA levels of MMP-7 than in non-atherosclerotic vessels. Particularly high protein levels of MMP-7 levels were found in those with the most recent symptoms. (iii) Immunhistochemistry showed that MMP-7 was localized to macrophages, and in vitro studies in primary monocytes showed that the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α in combination with hypoxia and oxidized LDL markedly increased MMP-7 expression. (iv) During the follow-up of patients with carotid atherosclerosis, high plasma levels of MMP-7 were independently associated with total mortality. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that MMP-7 could contribute to plaque instability in carotid atherosclerosis, potentially involving macrophage-related mechanisms

Baseline variables in patient groups according to symptomatology (n = 182).

<p>Clinical symptoms include stroke, TIA or amaurosis fugax ipsilateral to the stenotic internal carotid artery. BMI, body mass index. Numbers are given as percentage (numbers), *mean (SD), or **median (min–max). Cholesterol, HDL, LDL and Triglycerides levels were obtained in respectively 122, 110, 109, and 118 patients.</p

Association between plasma levels of MMP-7 and adverse outcome in patients with carotid atherosclerosis.

<p>Panel <b>A</b> shows Kaplan–Meier curve with the cumulative incidence of all-cause mortality during the entire study (mean follow-up 3.5 years) according to dichotomized MMP-7 levels (Cut-off median: 1.96 ng/mL). Panel <b>B</b> shows multi-variable analyses of predictors of all-cause mortality (direct entry). CRP and MMP-7 show expressed per SD change.</p

Immunostaining of MMP-7 within atherosclerotic and non-atherosclerotic vessels.

<p>Immuhistochemistry of MMP-7 in carotid atherosclerotic plaques (n = 8, symptoms within the recent 2 months) shows strong immunostaining. Representative images obtained with 100× <b>A</b> and 400× magnification (highlighted, with arrows on positive cells). Panel <b>B</b> shows no or weak immunostaining of MMP-7 in non-atherosclerotic carotid artery obtained from autopsies (n = 5). Panel <b>C</b> shows double immunofluorescent staining of MMP-7 (green fluorescence), CD68 (macrophages, red fluorescence) and nucleus (DAPI, blue fluorescence) from carotid atherosclerotic plaques (n = 4). The lower right panel is a merge of the three pictures.</p

The regulation of MMP-7 expression in primary monocytes.

<p>Panel <b>A</b> shows the effect of oxLDL (20 µg/ml), TNFα (5 ng/ml) or a combination thereof, panel <b>B</b> shows the effect of hypoxia with or without co-stimulation with oxLDL (20 mg/ml), TNFα (5 ng/ml) or a combination thereof. The cells were cultured for 48 hours before experimental starts and cell pellets were harvested 18 hours thereafter. mRNA levels of MMP-7 were quantified by real-time RT-PCR in relation to the expression of the endogenous control gene β-actin. Data are mean±SEM (n = 6) and are given in relation to cells that received vehicle (Ctr) or were cultured in normoxic condition. *p<0.05 versus Ctr (panel <b>A</b>). ***p<0.001 versus all other conditions (panel <b>B</b>).</p