Effects of Pharmaceuticals on the Nitrogen Cycle in Water and Soil: A Review

The effects of pharmaceuticals on the nitrogen cycle in water and soil have recently become an increasingly important issue for environmental research. However, a few studies have investigated the direct effects of pharmaceuticals on the nitrogen cycle in water and soil. Pharmaceuticals can contribute to inhibition and stimulation of nitrogen cycle processes in the environment. Some pharmaceuticals have no observable effect on the nitrogen cycle in water and soil while others appeared to inhibit or stimulate for it. This review reports on the most recent evidence of effects of pharmaceuticals on the nitrogen cycle processes by examination of the potential impact of pharmaceuticals on nitrogen fixation, nitrification, ammonification, denitrification, and anammox. Research studies have identified pharmaceuticals that can either inhibit or stimulate nitrification, ammonification, denitrification, and anammox. Among these, amoxicillin, chlortetracycline, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, enrofloxacin, erythromycin, narasin, norfloxacin, and sulfamethazine had the most significant effects on nitrogen cycle processes. This review also clearly demonstrates that some nitrogen transformation processes such as nitrification show much higher sensitivity to the presence of pharmaceuticals than other nitrogen transformations or flows such as mineralization or ammonia volatilization. We conclude by suggesting that future studies take a more comprehensive approach to report on pharmaceuticals’ impact on the nitrogen cycle process

Pharmaceutical and Microplastic Pollution before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Surface Water, Wastewater, and Groundwater

Pharmaceuticals, microplastics, and oil spills are the most hazardous contaminants in aquatic environments. The COVID-19 pandemic enhanced pharmaceutical and microplastic contamination in aquatic environments. The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence of pharmaceutical and microplastic pollution on a global scale. This study assessed the results of pharmaceutical contamination in 25 countries and microplastic pollution in 13 countries. The findings show that pharmaceutical residues were detected in surface water, groundwater, and wastewater influents and effluents. In total, 43 types of pharmaceutical products were detected in 25 countries. Caffeine, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, sulfamethoxazole, and carbamazepine were the most abundant. In total, 32 types of polymers were detected in 13 countries. In the case of microplastics, polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate were the more abundant polymers. Particles with a size of 1–2.5 mm and 2.5–5 mm accounted for half of the microplastics present in 13 countries. This study provides new evidence of the importance of emerging pollutants in aquatic environments before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

The efficacy of plant enzymes bromelain and papain as a tool for reducing gluten immunogenicity from wheat bran

Gluten-free products made from naturally gluten-free raw materials have an inferior taste and can cause deficiencies in various nutrients, especially non-starch polysaccharides. To address this problem, scientists are searching for new strategies to eliminate harmful gluten from wheat, rye, and barley and to produce balanced products with good organoleptic properties. This study evaluated the possibility of hydrolysing gluten in wheat bran, a by-product obtained after the dry fractionation of wheat, using plant enzymes. The gluten content of wheat bran after treatment with papain, bromelain, and their combination under different hydrolysis conditions was investigated. The amount of gluten was determined using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ELISA R5 and the reduction in immunogenic gliadins was analysed using high-performance reverse phase liquid chromatography. The results of the study showed that 4 h hydrolysis with bromelain and papain reduced the levels of gluten immunogenic compounds in bran from 58,650.00 to 2588.20–3544.50 mg/kg; however, they did not reach the gluten-free limit. A higher hydrolysis efficiency of 95.59% was observed after treatment with papain, while the combination of both enzymes and bromelain alone were less effective. The results presented in this article will be helpful to other researchers and manufacturers of wheat-based products when selecting methods to reduce gluten immunogenicity and contribute to the development of sustainable technologies