The long-term effects of maternal deprivation on the number and size of inhibitory interneurons in the rat amygdala and nucleus accumbens

IntroductionThere is an increasing evidence supporting the hypothesis that traumatic experiences during early developmental periods might be associated with psychopathology later in life. Maternal deprivation (MD) in rodents has been proposed as an animal model for certain aspects of neuropsychiatric disorders.MethodsTo determine whether early-life stress leads to changes in GABAergic, inhibitory interneurons in the limbic system structures, specifically the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, 9-day-old Wistar rats were exposed to a 24 h MD. On postnatal day 60 (P60), the rats were sacrificed for morphometric analysis and their brains were compared to the control group.ResultsResults show that MD affect GABAergic interneurons, leading to the decrease in density and size of the calcium-binding proteins parvalbumin-, calbindin-, and calretinin-expressing interneurons in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens.DiscussionThis study indicates that early stress in life leads to changes in the number and morphology of the GABAergic, inhibitory interneurons in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens, most probably due to the loss of neurons during postnatal development and it further contributes to understanding the effects of maternal deprivation on brain development

Anatomical and functional study of the musculus psoas major and nervus femoralis in correlation with pelvic diameters

Background/Aim. The iliopsoas muscle [musculus (m.) iliopsoas] originates from the Greek word psóa, which means loin and represents the only muscle in the body with anatomical preconditions to simultaneously and directly contribute to the stability and movement of the trunk, pelvis, and legs. M. iliopsoas belongs to the inner thigh muscle group and forms part of the posterior abdominal wall. This muscle is the major flexor of the hip joint, and it is functionally essential for proper posture, walking, running, and other physical activities. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between the anatomical parameters of the pelvis and nervus (n.) femoralis, as well as the relationship between the same pelvic parameters and m. psoas major. Methods. The study was conducted at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, on cadaveric material of the Institute of Anatomy “Niko Miljanić”. For measurement purposes, 14 cadavers were used, seven of which were male and seven female, aged 67–79 years. The measuring instruments used in this study were a ruler and an electronic digital caliper (measuring range 0–500 mm, resolution 0.01 mm). Statistical data processing was performed in the SPSS 11.0 program using the Mann-Whitney U test. Results. The results of this study indicate a significant statistical difference in pelvic width between male and female cadavers, which was observed in the reduction of the bituberal line in females, while the parameters of the bispinal line showed no significant difference between the two genders. The decrease of the bituberal line in females was followed by an increase in the width of the proximal origin with a statistically significant decrease in the length of the proximal origin of the m. psoas major. Furthermore, the vertical distance of n. femoralis from the exit point of the muscle to the bispinal line was significantly reduced in the male cadavers. Conclusion. Based on our results, we can assume that, in most cases, due to the smaller bituberal and bispinal line or narrower pelvis, a shorter proximal attachment of the m. psoas major will occur with greater width (L2–L5 level) in the female than in the male gender, resulting in a longer vertical distance of n. femoralis. Such results indicate a close correlation between the anatomical parameters of the m. psoas major, which may affect the distance of n. femoralis exit from the muscle.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe

Anatomical and functional study of the musculus psoas major and nervus femoralis in correlation with pelvic diameters

Background/Aim. The iliopsoas muscle [musculus (m.) iliopsoas] originates from the Greek word psóa, which means loin and represents the only muscle in the body with anatomical preconditions to simultaneously and directly contribute to the stability and movement of the trunk, pelvis, and legs. M. iliopsoas belongs to the inner thigh muscle group and forms part of the posterior abdominal wall. This muscle is the major flexor of the hip joint, and it is functionally essential for proper posture, walking, running, and other physical activities. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between the anatomical parameters of the pelvis and nervus (n.) femoralis, as well as the relationship between the same pelvic parameters and m. psoas major. Methods. The study was conducted at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, on cadaveric material of the Institute of Anatomy “Niko Miljanić”. For measurement purposes, 14 cadavers were used, seven of which were male and seven female, aged 67–79 years. The measuring instruments used in this study were a ruler and an electronic digital caliper (measuring range 0–500 mm, resolution 0.01 mm). Statistical data processing was performed in the SPSS 11.0 program using the Mann-Whitney U test. Results. The results of this study indicate a significant statistical difference in pelvic width between male and female cadavers, which was observed in the reduction of the bituberal line in females, while the parameters of the bispinal line showed no significant difference between the two genders. The decrease of the bituberal line in females was followed by an increase in the width of the proximal origin with a statistically significant decrease in the length of the proximal origin of the m. psoas major. Furthermore, the vertical distance of n. femoralis from the exit point of the muscle to the bispinal line was significantly reduced in the male cadavers. Conclusion. Based on our results, we can assume that, in most cases, due to the smaller bituberal and bispinal line or narrower pelvis, a shorter proximal attachment of the m. psoas major will occur with greater width (L2–L5 level) in the female than in the male gender, resulting in a longer vertical distance of n. femoralis. Such results indicate a close correlation between the anatomical parameters of the m. psoas major, which may affect the distance of n. femoralis exit from the muscle

Maternal deprivation in rats decreases the expression of interneuron markers in the neocortex and hippocampus

Early life stress has profound effects on the development of the central nervous system. We exposed 9-day-old rat pups to a 24 h maternal deprivation (MD) and sacrificed them as young adults (60-day-old), with the aim to study the effects of early stress on forebrain circuitry. We estimated numbers of various immunohistochemically defined interneuron subpopulations in several neocortical regions and in the hippocampus. MD rats showed reduced numbers of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons in the CA$_1$ region of the hippocampus and in the prefrontal cortex, compared with controls. Numbers of reelin-expressing and calretinin-expressing interneurons were also reduced in the CA1 and CA$_3$ hippocampal areas, but unaltered in the neocortex of MD rats. The number of calbinin-expressing interneurons in the neocortex was similar in the MD rats compared with controls. We analyzed cell death in 15-day-old rats after MD and found no difference compared to control rats. Thus, our results more likely reflect the downregulation of markers than the actual loss of interneurons. To investigate synaptic activity in the hippocampus we immunostained for glutamatergic and inhibitory vesicular transporters. The number of inhibitory synapses was decreased in the CA$_1$ and CA$_3$ regions of the hippocampus in MD rats, with the normal number of excitatory synapses. Our results indicate complex, cell type-specific, and region-specific alterations in the inhibitory circuitry induced by maternal deprivation. Such alterations may underlie symptoms of MD at the behavioral level and possibly contribute to mechanisms by which early life stress causes neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia