The new path of law : from theory of chaos to theory of law

From chaos to chaos theory, from the primordial perception of the world as disorderly to the scientific research of disorder a long distance has been covered. This path implies openness of mind and scientific boldness which connect mythological perceptions of the world with philosophical and scientific interpretations of phenomena throughout the world in a quite distinctive way resting on the creation of a model and application of computing. Owing to this, for the first time instead of asking What awaits us in the future? we can ask What can be done in the future? and get a reliable scientific answer to the question

Der realistische Begriff des Rechts

The law is an extremely complex phenomenon. It is very difficult to determine it precisely as the complete comprehension and ultimate definition of the law are beyond human capabilities. Also, the law never coincides with its concept, nor does the concept of the law coincide with its definition. This fact shows that the real human capabilities for the comprehension, determination and definition of the law are very limited and the limits are unreliable. The concept of the law is relative as well, which is why all the definitions of the law are also relative. The concept and the definition of the law are also relative because they are of necessity subjective. It is for this reason that they are never truthful. However, even when they are not truthful, they are always useful. Because of these essential cognitive shortcomings and limitations, the law is determined and defined realistically – in a conventional and operative manner – whenever it is possible to do so. Additional difficulties are created by the fact that the number of conventional concepts and definitions of the law is almost limitless. Fortunately, only a number of them, considered operative, are used in the law. And all this because of a possible usefulness. Should the law be useful, then its realistic concept can be determined by the establishment of its common characteristics. On the basis of having at its disposal the mentioned common characteristics, the concept of the law can be operationally determined in both the expanded sense and the restricted sense. Also, it is possible to tell the difference between the three main layers in the concept of the law: complete (perfect), incomplete (imperfect) and unfinished (illusionary or naked) law. Obviously, the realistically determined concept of the law is not one-sided, nor is it monolithic, but complex, detailed and as a whole composed of layers of different degrees of being legal. They are used to finely tune the ordering of the relationships between different importance and the degree of the conflict and, which is also important, to legally regulate even those social areas that would otherwise be exclusively regulated with the state or with the social norms. Otherwise, even the Ten Commandments alone would be insufficient to regulate all human relationships. However, the law did not come into being out of leisure time, but out of dire human need to protect the society from self-destruction. Contrary to the realistic concept of the law, there also exist its idealistic, idealized and ideal concepts. However, the idealistic concept of the law is inoperative, the idealized concept of the law is not correct, while the ideal concept of the law is out of human reach.Pravo predstavlja izuzetno složenu pojavu. Njega je veoma teško točno odrediti, jer su potpuna spoznaja i konačno definiranje prava izvan ljudskih mogućnosti. Također, pravo se nikada ne podudara sa svojim pojmom, niti se pojam prava podudara sa svojom definicijom. Ta činjenica pokazuje da su stvarne ljudske mogućnosti za spoznavanje, određivanje i definiranje prava veoma ograničene, a granice nepouzdane. Pojam prava je i relativan, zbog čega su relativne i sve definicije prava. Pojam i definicija prava su relativni i zbog toga što su nužno subjektivni. Zbog toga oni nikada nisu istiniti. Ali, i kada nisu istiniti, oni su uvijek korisni. Zbog tih bitnih spoznajnih nedostataka i ograničenja, pravo se određuje i definira realistički – na konvencionalan i operativan način – kad god je to moguće. Dodatnu teškoću predstavlja činjenica da konvencionalnih pojmova i definicija prava ima gotovo beskonačno. Srećom, u pravu se koristi samo nekoliko njih koje se smatraju operativnima. I sve to zbog moguće korisnosti. Ako pravo treba biti korisno, tada se njegov realistički pojam može odrediti utvrđivanjem njegovih zajedničkih svojstava. Na osnovu raspoloživosti navedenih zajedničkih svojstava, pojam prava može se operativno odrediti u proširenom i suženom smislu. Također, mogu se razlikovati tri glavna sloja u pojmu prava: potpuno (savršeno), nepotpuno (nesavršeno) i nedovršeno (prividno ili golo) pravo. Očigledno, realistički određen pojam prava nije jednoobrazan ni monolitan, već složen, iznijansiran i u cijelosti satkan od slojeva različitih stupnjeva pravnosti. Njima se fino podešava uređivanje odnosa različitog značaja i stupnja konfliktnosti i, što je također važno, na odgovarajući način se pravno reguliraju i ona društvena područja koja bi isključivo bila regulirana državnim ili društvenim normama. Da nije tako, i Deset božjih zapovijedi bi bilo dovoljno za uređivanje svih ljudskih odnosa. Ali, pravo nije nastalo iz dokolice, već iz prijeke ljudske potrebe za očuvanjem društva od samouništenja. Nasuprot realističkom pojmu prava postoji njegov idealistički, idealizirani i idealni pojam. Ali, idealistički pojam prava nije operativan, idealizirani pojam prava nije točan, dok je idealni pojam prava ljudski nedostižan.Le droit est un phénomène particulièrement complexe. Il est très difficile à déterminer avec précision puisqu’une pleine compréhension et la définition ultime du droit sont au-delà des capacités humaines. Également, le droit ne coïncide jamais avec son concept ni le concept de droit ne coïncide avec sa définition. Ce fait montre que les capacités réelles de l’homme de connaître, déterminer et définir le droit sont très limitées et que les limites sont peu fiables. Le concept de droit est en outre relatif ; c’est pourquoi toute définition du droit est relative aussi. Le concept et la définition du droit sont également relatifs parce que nécessairement subjectifs. C’est pourquoi ils ne sont jamais fidèles. Néanmoins, même quand ils ne sont pas fidèles, ils sont utiles. En raison des ces défauts et limites cognitives essentielles, le droit est déterminé et défini réalistement – de façon conventionnelle et opérationnelle – à chaque fois que cela est possible. Une difficulté supplémentaire réside dans le fait qu’il existe un nombre quasiment illimité de concepts et de définitions conventionnels du droit. Heureusement, seulement quelques- unes, considérées comme opérationnelles, sont utilisées dans le droit. Et tout ceci à cause d’une potentielle utilité. Si le droit doit être utile, alors son concept réaliste peut être déterminé en établissant ses caractéristiques communes. S’appuyant sur la disponibilité des caractéristiques communes mentionnées, le concept du droit peut être déterminé opérationnellement dans un sens élargi et un sens étroit. Egalement, il est possible de distinguer trois couches principales dans le concept de droit : complet (parfait), incomplet (imparfait) et inachevé (apparent ou nu). A l’évidence, le concept de droit déterminé de manière réaliste n’est ni unilatéral ni monolithique mais complexe, nuancé et dans l’ensemble tissé de couches à différents degrés de légalité. Elles servent à accorder les rapports de signification et de degré de conflictualité différents et, ce qui est également important, à réguler légalement même les domaines sociaux qui autrement seraient régulés exclusivement par le biais des normes d’État ou sociales. Sinon, même les Dix Commandements suffiraient à réguler tous les rapports humains. Cependant, le droit n’est pas né du loisir, mais d’un besoin terrible de protéger la société de l’auto-destruction. Contrairement au concept réaliste de droit, il existe également son concept idéaliste, idéalisé et idéal. Cependant, le concept idéaliste du droit n’est pas opérationnel, le concept idéalisé n’est pas correct, tandis que le concept idéal du droit est hors de la portée de l’homme.Das Recht stellt ein immens vielfältiges Phänomen dar. Ihn präzise festzulegen entpuppt sich als unsäglich schwierig, denn eine lückenlose Erkenntnis sowie endgültige Definition des Rechts liegt jenseits des menschlichen Vermögens. Zudem geht weder das Recht mit dessen Begriff konform, noch tut es der Begriff des Rechts mit eigener Bestimmung. Dieser Tatbestand lässt durchblicken, die wahre menschliche Befähigung zum Erkennen, Determinieren sowie Definieren des Rechts sei höchst begrenzt, wobei sich ebendiese Schranken als unzuverlässig erzeigen. Die Notion des Rechts ist ebenso relativ, weswegen hiernach sämtliche Begriffsbestimmungen des Rechts relativ sind. Der Begriff einschließlich der Definition des Rechts ist auch aufgrund der ihnen notwendigerweise innewohnenden Subjektivität relativ. Aus diesem Grund sind sie niemals wahrheitsgetreu. Allerdings, auch wenn sie der Wahrheit nicht entsprechen, sind sie stets von Nützlichkeit. Wegen der angebrachten essenziellen erkenntnismäßigen Unzulänglichkeiten und Limitierungen wird das Recht realistisch bestimmt und definiert – in einer konventionellen bzw. operativen Manier – wann immer dies durchführbar ist. Zusätzliche Erschwernisse werden von der Tatsache geschaffen, dass die Zahl der gebräuchlichen Begriffe und Definitionen des Rechts schier unermesslich ist. Glücklicherweise werden lediglich etliche, als operativ angesehene, im Bereich von Recht eingesetzt. Und all dies der denkbaren Nützlichkeit halber. Sollte das Recht nützlich sein, dann lässt sich dessen realistischer Begriff per Gründung seiner gemeinsamen Wesenszüge festsetzen. Auf der Basis der vorhin angeschnittenen, ihm zu Gebote stehenden angehörigen Merkmale, kann der Begriff des Rechts operational determiniert werden, sowohl im erweiterten als auch im engeren Sinne. Ebenfalls ist der Unterschied erkennbar zwischen drei Hauptschichten in dem Begriff des Rechts: vollständiges Recht (vollkommen), unvollständiges Recht (unvollkommen) und unvollendetes Recht (scheinbar oder nackt). Augenscheinlich ist der realistischerweise bestimmte Begriff des Rechts weder einseitig noch monolithisch, stattdessen ist er komplex, detailliert und als Ganzes aus Schichten von ungleichem Rechtlichkeitsgrad zusammengestellt. Man gebraucht sie zur Feinabstimmung der Beziehungsordnung zwischen der unterschiedlichen Wichtigkeit und dem Grad des Konflikts, und, was genauso Gewicht hat, um sogar jene Gesellschaftszonen rechtmäßig zu regeln, die anderenfalls ausschließlich seitens der staatlichen bzw. gesellschaftlichen Normen geregelt würden. Ansonsten würden selbst die Zehn Gebote nicht genügen, um menschliche Verhältnisse in ihrer Gänze zu ordnen. Jedoch ist das Recht nicht als Freizeitaktivität entstanden, sondern im Gegenteil als unentbehrliches menschliches Bedürfnis nach Bewahrung der Menschheit vor Selbstauflösung. Der realistischen Notion des Rechts entgegengesetzt existieren parallel dessen idealistische, idealisierte und ideale Begriffe. Dabei gilt der idealistische Begriff als inoperativ, der idealisierte als inkorrekt, während der ideale Begriff außerhalb der menschlichen Reichweite liegt

Walnut grafting success as affected by stratification

Abstract: The effect of air temperature and relative humidity inside a stratification room on walnut grafting success was investigated in this study. The whip-and-tongue grafting technique was used. One-year-old seedlings of local types of walnut (Juglans regia L.) and five cultivars and selections, including cv. Šeinovo (control), Ovčar, G-286, Elit and G-139 were used for grafting. Three stratification treatments were employed. The highest average graft success of 86.0% in both years in all the tested cultivars and selections was obtained with the treatment involving dipping scions and graft unions into paraffin, stratification in sawdust up to the union and covering with polyethylene foil. Among the cultivars and selections tested, the graft-take success was highest in cv. Šeinovo (87.7%) and lowest in selection G-139 (67.9%)

Evaluation of potentially toxic element contamination in the riparian zone of the River Sava

Contaminated sediments transported onto the river terrace during high water events can contribute significant quantities of potentially toxic elements to riparian soils. Seven trace elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) were analysed in the river sediment and riparian soil of the River Sava and their spatial distribution, potential toxicity and ecological risk levels were evaluated. The results showed that levels of all the trace metals were enriched to varying extents in both the sediment (As, Cr, Ni, and Pb) and soil (Ni) when compared to reference levels for sediments and European soils. Mean concentrations of trace metals in sediment and soil, apart from Pb, increased downstream in the River Sava. The similar increasing trend of these elements in sediment and soil may be explained by their increased load due to anthropogenic pressures (As, Cr, Ni, Pb and Zn in sediment and the significant accumulation of Ni in soil) and frequent periodic flooding (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn in sediment and Cd in soil are influenced by both high water events and natural factors such as the geological substrate), particularly in lowland regions. In this study, soluble As, Cd, Cr, Cu and Ni fractions in sediment and soil LT 10% indicated their low mobility. The exceptions were readily soluble Pb and Zn in the sediment and soil at some sampling sites. In the lower reaches, levels of Pb in sediment was indicative of a medium environmental hazard, while there was a high environmental hazard in the upper reaches with the average Pb content in sediment higher than the PEL. Pollution factors for Pb in soil indicated a medium environmental hazard in the upper and middle reaches and a high environmental hazard at some sites in the lower stretches of the Sava River, although total Pb content in soil was within the range proposed for European soils

Far infrared and transport properties of single crystal PBTE samples doped with Ce

Single crystal samples of lead telluride doped with cerium were made using the Bridgman technique. Single crystals could be easily cleaved parallel to the (002) plane. Room temperature far infrared reflectivity was measured on single crystal samples and a plasma minimum at about 180 cm(-1) and local modes of Ce were observed. A fitting procedure based on a modified four parameter model of plasmon - phonon interaction, was used to determine the values of optical parameters. Carrier concentration and their mobility were measured at room and liquid nitrogen temperatures.Romanian Conference on Advanced Materials (ROCAM 2000), Bucharest, ROMANIA, october 23-25th, 2000

Contamination, risk, and source apportionment of potentially toxic microelements in river sediments and soil after extreme flooding in the Kolubara River catchment in Western Serbia

Climate change is contributing to an increase in extreme weather events. This results in a higher river flooding risk, causing a series of environmental disturbances, including potential contamination of agricultural soil. In Serbia, the catastrophic floods of 2014 affected six river basins, including the Kolubara River Basin, as one of the larger sub-catchments of the large regional Sava River Basin, which is characterized by large areas under agricultural cultures, various geological substrates, and different types of industrial pollution. The main aim of this study was to establish the sources of potentially toxic elements in soil and flood sediments and the effect of the flood on their concentrations. Field sampling was performed immediately after water had receded from the flooded area in May 2014. In total, 36 soil samples and 28 flood sediment samples were collected. After acid digestion (HNO3), concentrations of the most frequent potentially toxic elements (PTE) in agricultural production (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) and Co which are closely related to the geological characteristics of river catchments, were analyzed. The origin, source, and interrelations of microelements, as well as BACKGROUND: values of the PTE of the river catchment, the pollution index (Pi), enrichment factor (Ef), and geological index (Igeo), were determined, using statistical methods such as Pearson correlations, principal component analysis (PCA), and multiple linear regression (MLRA). The content of the hot acid-extractable forms of the elements, PCA, and MLRA revealed a heavy geological influence on microelement content, especially on Ni, Cr, and Co, while an anthropogenic influence was observed for Cu, Zn, and Cd content. This mixed impact was primarily related to mines and their impact on As and Pb content. The pseudo-total concentrations of all the analyzed elements did not prove to be a danger in the catchment area, except for Cu in some samples, indicating point-source pollution, and Ni, whose pseudo-total content could be a limiting factor in agricultural production. For the Ef, the Ni content in 59% soil and 68% flood sediment samples is classified into influence classes. The similar pseudo-total contents of the elements studied in soil samples and flood sediment and their origin indicate that the long-term soil formation process is subject to periodic flooding in the Kolubara River Basin without any significant changes taking place. This implies that floods are not an endangering factor in terms of the contamination of soil by potentially toxic elements in the explored area

Procedural justice, truthfulness and rightness

The aim of this work is not to support the idea of the existence of procedural justice, advocated by the best known proponents of the existence of procedural justice (J. Rawls and O. Höffe, and then by L. Fuller, H. Hart, R. Dworkin, P. Koller, M. Van den Bos and others), but to consider procedural justice from the angle of truthfulness and rightness. Since it is not about the same but related concepts, it is rendered possible to conclude that truthfulness and rightness are incongruent, in the same way as justice and the law are incongruent. Something that is truthful does not need to be righteous. And vice versa, something that is righteous does not need to be truthful. Obviously, it has to do with the relationship between the goal (truthfulness, justice and fairness) and means (properness, correctness, preciseness, reliability, etc. in a word, solidity). The consideration of the relationship of truthfulness and rightness in the example of the actually existing justice and the actually non-existent procedural justice, gives rise to further important questions: the relationship of material (substantive) and formal (procedural) legal rules, fairness as the meeting place of justice, the law and procedure, etc. In a yet deeper shadow lies the question of the relationship between natural law and positive law. It can be concluded that procedural justice does not exist. But, justice exists, only it is not procedural, which neither is fairness. Procedure is the only righteous means of the law, but the law is not the only righteous means of justice

The weak and the strong equivalence relation and the asymptotic inversion

In this paper we discuss the relationship between the weak and the strong asymptotic equivalence relation and the asymptotic inversion, for positive and measurable functions defined on a half-axis [a, + ∞) (a > 0). As the main results, we prove a certain characterizations of the functional class of all rapidly varying functions, as well as some other functional classes

The field of law and morality

Law and morality are not the same, but the related phenomena. The aforementioned difference requires further consideration of the characteristic teachings concerned with the relationship between law and morality. They boil down to the three main ones: teachings which completely separate law from morality, teachings which refer to the identification of law with morality and teachings which link law and morality. This last, the third teaching is the most acceptable because it acknowledges that it has to do with the phenomena which partially intersect due to the characteristic similarities despite the simultaneous existence of the characteristic differences. Owing to that intersection, law and morality create three fields (resembling the theory of the symphony in a state): pure legal, pure moral, and a mixed one (legal and moral). Intersecting, intertwining and growing into one of legal and moral norms show that the common field throughout which spread law and morality (the field of the legality of morality) can be viewed in a broader and narrower sense - in a broader sense when it refers to all legal norms and all heteronomous moral norms, and in a narrower sense when it refers only to the legal norms that support moral norms and moral norms that support legal norms. That narrower meaning of the legality of morality is more acceptable because outside it remain purely legal norms which are morally neutral (e. g. technical legal norms and standards) and purely moral norms which are legally irrelevant (e. g. relationships of love, friendship, comradeship, respect, etc.) or which are forbidden by law

Status of orthophoto production and applications in Serbia

Paper reviews achieved level of orthophoto production in Serbia, with estimates on further developments in the next few years. Users, sources of financing, application areas, state and private sector partnership, etc. are particularly analyzed. Role of orthophoto in a situation characterized by outdated official maps, especially for urban areas with a large number of new objects, and even whole new settlements which are not surveyed and mapped is evaluated. Digital orthophoto also plays key role in Serbia in all cases where large scaled GIS establishment is concerned. Paper also reviews gained experiences related to this matter. Although there is a generally unquestionable support to orthophoto in Serbia, there are still some issues that have to be dealt with. For example, when orthophoto utilization for cadastral purposes is considered, there is no answer to the question whether or not, and under which conditions, digital orthophoto could be used for the update of official cadastral maps at 1:1000 and 1:2500 scale. Some solutions to this dilemma are presented in paper. Some other related issues such as technical regulations for digital orthophoto production, copyright, establishment of the national orthophoto program, etc. are also reviewed in the paper