The sustainable management of the New Zealand longfin eel : a bioeconomic analysis : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Applied Economics at Massey University

Annual recruitment of the New Zealand longfin eel (Anguilla dieffenbachii) has declined by around 75 percent since heavy levels of commercial fishing began in the early 1970s. Longfin eels live in freshwater for many years, sometimes over one hundred, before reaching sexual maturity and migrating to oceanic spawning grounds. Longfin eels are semelparous, in that they die after making only a single reproductive contribution following migration. Late maturation and semelparity render longfin populations extremely sensitive to recruitment overfishing. Consequently, poorly defined property rights and fragmented regulation have permitted multiple user groups, but primarily the commercial fishery, to reduce these stocks to the point of near-collapse. In this research, a deterministic multiple-cohort bioeconomic model is developed and applied to a longfin eel population to investigate sustainable management strategies for the fishery, subject to its biological and economic characteristics. The optimisation framework incorporates density-dependent growth and spawner-recruitment relationships and a delay-difference equation to express the significant lag between the sexual maturity of adults and the vulnerability of corresponding young to the fishery. The model also permits the investigation of alternative weight restrictions and a price that varies with age/size. The model demonstrates the insufficiency of using past harvests to calculate sustainable catch, as done recently for the South Island fishery. The model results also indicate the need for a minimum weight restriction higher than that maintained under the existing regulatory system. The importance of no maximum weight restriction is also identified. Additionally, the model results indicate that there is a significant inverse relationship between the level of exploitation and the annual breeding population, since no harvested eel has ever spawned. The sensitivity of longfin eel populations to recruitment overfishing is greater in reality due to uncertainty, competition among harvesters, price and harvest incentives, and this specie's biology. These factors suggest that the use of any harvest-based regulatory system without significant investment in area closure will fail to protect longfin eel stocks through the recovery and maintenance of spawning biomass. The analysis identifies the need for an integrated management strategy, incorporating area closures, for rebuilding and maintaining spawning biomass, and the use of ITQ management in open fisheries to aid the allocation of fishing rights among users. Efficient management of these open areas requires a higher minimum weight limit than under the current management system, and no maximum weight restriction. The calculation of sustainable harvest levels remains problematic due to poor information; however, active adaptive management may be used to work towards their identification. This approach might be aided by density-dependent growth, which would assist the recovery of populations if sustainable harvest were overestimated. Additionally, spawners from closed populations would help to safeguard against recruitment overfishing during the investigation of sustainable exploitation rates. This integrated policy represents a biologically sound and economically relevant management strategy that has the potential to sustain longfin populations and their harvest indefinitely

A primer on implementing compressed simulated annealing for the optimisation of a constrained simulation model in Microsoft Excel

This short paper provides a simple introduction on how a simulation model implemented in Microsoft Excel® can be optimised using Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) programming and the compressed simulated annealing algorithm (Ohlmann et al., 2004; Ohlmann and Thomas, 2007). The standard simulated annealing procedure enters as a special case. Practical advice for determining the parameters that guide the stochastic search process in an annealing algorithm is also given.Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies,

Evaluation of agri-environmental policies for water quality improvement accounting for firm heterogeneity

Policy makers worldwide are interested in the identification of cost-effective policy instruments to reduce diffuse pollution. A large economic model representing heterogeneous farms is used to evaluate a broad set of policies for reducing nitrate regulation within a large catchment dominated by dairy production. A policy instrument that allows the level of abatement to vary among producers according to differences in abatement cost is most cost-effective. The primary goal of 26 kg N ha⁻¹ can be achieved at a cost of $15 ha⁻¹ under this cap and trade policy, while a uniform cap on emissions for all farmers would be more than three times as expensive ($49 ha⁻¹). In contrast, requiring uniform reductions in stocking rate, banning the application of nitrogen fertiliser, and land retirement perform poorly. These instruments are at least three times more costly than a cap and trade policy over all simulated reductions. Moreover, the differentiated policy does not greatly alter the distribution of farm profit, relative to what exists without regulation. The use of a large, complex economic model incorporating disaggregated farms provides unique insight into the economic benefits accruing to a differentiated policy

Optimal Dynamic Management of Agricultural Land-Uses: An Application of Regime Switching

The capacity of global agricultural production to meet increased demand for food from population growth and wealth accumulation is threatened by extensive land degradation. Nonetheless, previous research has focused primarily on the dynamic implications of input management and ignored land-use choice. This paper extends this theory through an examination of the intertemporal management of agricultural land through the use of non-crop inputs, such as fertilizer, and land uses that either degrade or restore productivity. The need to consider the relative total asset value of alternative crops over time is demonstrated. Moreover, higher output prices for degrading crops are shown to increase their relative value, motivating the later adoption of substitutes. An inability of land markets to reflect differences in resource quality and low capital malleability promote greater degradation. However, substitution of complementary effects through input use may help to sustain productivity. These factors are discussed in the context of crop sequence management in Western Australian cropping systems.crop sequences, land degradation, regime switching, International Development, Production Economics, Q15, Q24,

An Audit of export services in England: developing business focused support

One of the key thresholds in the development of small and medium sized enterprises is exporting and trading internationally. A brief review of the academic and practitioner literature highlights a number of benefits associated with exporting that include exposure to differing ways of ‘how to do’ business and opportunities for the development of joint ventures and strategic alliances. However, several regions within the United Kingdom perceive that they have too few SMEs who trade internationally. Recent estimates suggest that approximately three per cent of the SMEs in the United Kingdom are actively exporting (Bank of England, 1999). Government policy makers have responded to such concerns by providing a range of support programmes to increase the number of SMEs who trade internationally and enhance the skills and capabilities of those SMEs who export, so that they can efficiently and effectively manage the exporting and market development process. Therefore, in the majority of the English regions, there are a range of publicly funded organisations providing advice, consultancy, information and training to SMEs wishing to trade internationally and those businesses already exporting. In addition, SMEs can access a number of export services from private sector organisations such as banks, accountants, freight forwarders and export agents. There has been no overall national ‘stocktake’ or audit of such provision. However, the need for such a stocktake is becoming increasingly important due to the introduction of a number of new support organisations into the institutional landscape and the re-organisation and re-branding of British Trade International as Trade Partners UK and the appointment of a series of Regional International Trade Directors. The introduction of the Small Business Service will have a major impact on the coverage and nature of provision for exporting SMEs within each of the English regions. The introduction of the Small Business Service, however, provides an opportunity to explore and examine alternative configurations of small business support and the types of organisation that are best placed to satisfy the needs of exporting SMEs. This paper presents the key findings to emerge from an audit of export services within each of the English regions. Based on a research and development project undertaken in conjunction with Trade Partners UK, the paper offers insights into: • The coverage of export services available to SMEs within England; • The effectiveness and appropriateness of current configuration of export services; • The ways in which the effectiveness of the current configuration of export services could be enhanced. The audit was based on a series of face-to-face and telephone interviews with local, regional and national providers of export provision. A key argument within the paper is that effective configurations of export and trade development support arise from insights into, and appropriate responses to, the exporting and trade development process as experienced by SMEs. The paper concludes with a number of implications in terms of how business-driven forms of support can be developed.</p

Combinatorial optimisation of a large, constrained simulation model: an application of compressed annealing

Simulation models are valuable tools in the analysis of complex, highly constrained economic systems unsuitable for solution by mathematical programming. However, model size may hamper the efforts of practitioners to efficiently identify the most valuable configurations. This paper investigates the efficacy of a new metaheuristic procedure, compressed annealing, for the solution of large, constrained systems. This algorithm is used to investigate the value of incorporating a sown annual pasture, French serradella (Ornithopus sativa Brot. cv. Cadiz), between extended cropping sequences in the central wheat belt of Western Australia. Compressed annealing is shown to be a reliable means of considering constraints in complex optimisation problems in agricultural economics. It is also highlighted that the value of serradella to dryland crop rotations increases with the initial weed burden and the profitability of livestock production.combinatorial optimisation, crop rotation, simulated annealing, Research Methods/ Statistical Methods, C63, Q15,

A mathematical optimisation model of a New Zealand dairy farm: The integrated dairy enterprise (IDEA) framework

Optimisation models are a key tool for the analysis of emerging policies, price sets, and technologies within grazing systems. A detailed nonlinear optimisation model of a New Zealand dairy farming system is described. The framework is notable for its rich portrayal of pasture and cow biology that add substantial descriptive power to standard approaches. Key processes incorporated in the model include: (1) pasture growth and digestibility that differ with residual pasture mass and rotation length, (2) pasture utilisation that varies by stocking rate, and (3) different levels of intake regulation. Model output is shown to closely match data from a more detailed simulation model (deviations between 0 and 5 per cent) and survey data (deviations between 1 and 11 per cent), providing confidence in its predictive capacity. Use of the model is demonstrated in an empirical application investigating the relative profitability of production systems involving different amounts of imported feed under price variation. The case study indicates superior profitability associated with the use of a moderate level of imported supplement, with Operating Profit ($NZ ha-1) of 934, 926, 1186, 1314, and 1093 when imported feed makes up 0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 per cent of the diet, respectively. Stocking rate and milk production per cow increase by 35 and 29 per cent, respectively, as the proportion of imported feed increases from 0 to 30 per cent of the diet. Pasture utilisation increases with stocking rate. Accordingly, pasture eaten and nitrogen fertiliser application increase by 20 and 213 per cent, respectively, as the proportion of imported feed increases from 0 to 30 per cent of the diet

Factors that affect the use of herbicides in Philippine rice farming systems

This study involves the application of a random-effects double-hurdle model to survey data to identify the farm-level factors affecting the adoption and intensity of herbicide use in rice production in the Philippines. Results broadly indicate apparent differences in the degree to which important explanatory variables affect the intensity and adoption decisions. The age of the farmer, household size, and irrigation are the significant predictors influencing the decision of farmers to use herbicides, while economic variables such as the price of herbicides, total income of farmers, and the use of bank loans or credit are the highly significant factors determining the intensity of herbicide use. Significant determinants of both the adoption and intensity decisions are land ownership, farm area, and the method of crop establishment used. Results suggest that all of the identified significant predictors in both herbicide use decisions can be considered by the national government when designing policies to reduce excessive use of herbicides or to encourage the adoption of alternative methods of weed control. This is important because for small rice producers, like the majority of Filipino farmers, improved weed management techniques that build on their traditional practices and that are compatible with their resources will be more easily adopted by farmers, relative to those that require radical change to the entire farming system.Herbicide use, Double-hurdle model, Adoption, Rice farming system., Demand and Price Analysis,

Economic impacts of high labour cost and herbicide resistance for the management of annual barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) in rice production in the Philippines

Implications of increasing labour cost and development of herbicide resistance for profitable weed management in Philippine rice farming systems are investigated. The study employs RIMPhil (Resistance and Integrated Management in the Philippines), a bioeconomic simulation model developed to provide a comprehensive assessment of integrated weed management programmes for the control of annual barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) in rice crops. Results indicate that herbicide application will become increasingly economically attractive, relative to manual weeding, as labour cost increases. This is important since urban migration in the Philippines continues to increase the scarcity of rural labour. Results also show that the onset of herbicide resistance results in substantial losses in farm profit. It may be worthwhile for farmers to take management actions to prevent or delay the onset of herbicide resistance, provided that these changes are effective and not too costly. The study highlights the complexity of decision making about integrated weed management on rice farms in the Philippines.Barnyardgrass, Bioeconomic model, Herbicide resistance, Integrated weed management, Rice production, Crop Production/Industries, Farm Management, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies,

Realising the Rhetoric: Refreshing Public Health Providers' Efforts to Honour Te Tiriti O Waitangi

Objectives This paper investigates the ways two groupings of public health providers, public health units and non-governmental organisations meet their Te Tiriti o Waitangi obligations in terms of service delivery to Māori. Design A nationwide survey of public health providers (n=162) was conducted between November 2014 and May 2015. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with public health managers. Qualitative and quantitative data was collected. Participants were asked about the effectiveness of service delivery to Māori and how this was monitored. This paper presents a qualitative analysis of the data. Results Some public health units (PHUs) reported actively working with Māori, Te Tiriti o Waitangi and reducing health disparities. Direct Māori engagement with development and delivery of programmes was viewed by many as essential. Strategies included designated PHU staff in positions of responsibility and formal partnerships with mana whenua (local Māori with territorial rights), providing operational and strategic guidance. Some PHUs implemented staff development in cultural competencies. On the other hand non-governmental organisations (NGOs) responsiveness to Māori was variable. Some NGOs described prioritising service delivery and programmes for Māori to reduce health disparities. Others reported that the focus of their service delivery was for European or other non-Māori ethnicities and that a lack of resources or past difficulties engaging with Māori were barriers. Conclusion Māori, in common with other indigenous groups, have compromised health status. Public health has an ethical commitment to reduce health disparities. New Zealand has a unique tool in Te Tiriti o Waitangi for engagement with Māori. Advancing Te Tiriti obligations and tino rangatiratanga (Māori control over things Māori) in everyday practice has the potential to address inequities