Evaluation of Rhamnetin as an Inhibitor of the Pharmacological Effect of Secretory Phospholipase A2

Rhamnetin (Rhm), 3-O-methylquercetin (3MQ), and Rhamnazin (Rhz) are methylated derivatives of quercetin commonly found in fruits and vegetables that possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) displays several important roles during acute inflammationtherefore, this study aimed at investigating new compounds able to inhibit this enzyme, besides evaluating creatine kinase (CK) levels and citotoxicity. Methylated quercetins were compared with quercetin (Q) and were incubated with secretory PLA2 (sPLA2) from Bothrops jararacussu to determine their inhibitory activity. Cytotoxic studies were performed by using the J774 cell lineage incubated with quercertins. In vivo tests were performed with Swiss female mice to evaluate decreasing paw edema potential and compounds' CK levels. Structural modifications on sPLA2 were made with circular dichroism (CD). Despite Q and Rhz showing greater enzymatic inhibitory potential, high CK was observed. Rhm exhibited sPLA2 inhibitory potential, no toxicity and, remarkably, it decreased CK levels. The presence of 3OH on the C-ring of Rhm may contribute to both its anti-inflammatory and enzymatic inhibition of sPLA2, and the methylation of ring A may provide the increase in cell viability and low CK level induced by sPLA2. These results showed that Rhm can be a candidate as a natural compound for the development of new anti-inflammatory drugs.Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP)Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)Univ Fed São Paulo, Postgrad Program Food Nutr & Hlth, BR-11015020 São Paulo, BrazilUniv Estadual Paulista, Biosci Inst, BR-11330900 São Paulo, BrazilBrazil Univ, Prorector Res, BR-08230030 São Paulo, BrazilUniv São Paulo, Pathol Lab Infect Dis LIM50, Dept Pathol, Sch Med, BR-01246903 São Paulo, BrazilUniv Fed São Paulo, Postgrad Program Food Nutr & Hlth, BR-11015020 São Paulo, BrazilWeb of Scienc

Therapeutic activity of a topical formulation containing 8-hydroxyquinoline for cutaneous leishmaniasis

Cutaneous leishmaniasis exhibits a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, however, only a limited number of drugs are available and include Glucantime® and amphotericin B, which in patients induce unacceptable side effects, limiting their use. Thus, there is an urgent demand to develop a treatment for leishmaniasis. Recently, it was demonstrated that 8-hydroxyquinoline (8-HQ) showed significant leishmanicidal effects in vitro and in vivo. Based on it, this work aimed to develop a topical formulation containing 8-HQ and assess its activity in experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. 8-HQ was formulated using Beeler base at 1 and 2% and showed an emulsion size with a D50 of 25 and 51.3 µm respectively with a shear-thinning rheological behaviour. The creams were able to permeate artificial Strat-M membranes and excised porcine skin without causing any  morphological changes in porcine skin or murine skin tested. In BALB/c mice infected with L. (L.) amazonensis, topical treatment with creams containing 1 or 2% of 8-HQ was found to reduce parasite burden and lesion size compared to infected controls with comparable efficacy to Glucantime® (50mg/kg) administered at the site of cutaneous lesion. In the histological section of the skin from infected controls, a diffuse inflammatory infiltrate with many heavily infected macrophages that were associated with areas of necrosis was observed. On the contrary, animals treated with both creams showed only moderate inflammatory infiltrate, characterized by few infected macrophages, while tissue necrosis was not observed. These histological characteristics in topically treated animals were associated with an increase in the amount of IFN- γ  and a reduction in IL-4 levels. The topical use of 8-HQ was active in decreasing tissue parasitism and should therefore be considered an interesting alternative directed to the treatment of leishmaniasis, considering that this type of treatment is noninvasive, painless, and, importantly, does not require hospitalization, improving patient compliance by allowing to conduct the treatment

Analysis of cellular immune response induced by proteic antigens isolated from Leishmania (Viannia) shawi

A espécie Leishmania (Viannia) shawi foi caracterizada recentemente pelo grupo de Lainson. Estudos recentes indicam o importante papel médico epidemiológico deste parasito no Brasil. Portanto, os objetivos do presente estudo foram caracterizar o modelo experimental murino desta infecção, purificar antígenos protéicos e avaliar seus graus de proteção após desafio. Para caracterizar o modelo murino de infecção, camundongos das linhagens BALB/c e C57BL/6 foram infectados na pata com formas promastigotas e os achados histopatológicos e imunológicos foram avaliados durante a evolução da infecção. Para os estudos de imunização foram utilizados 10 diferentes antígenos: três secretados/excretados pelas formas promastigotas de L. (V.) shawi, dois intracelulares solúveis das formas amastigotas (AgAma) e promastigotas (AgPro), e cinco frações protéicas purificadas a partir do antígeno intracelular solúvel das formas promastigotas. Estes antígenos foram utilizados para imunizar camundongos da linhagem BALB/c duas vezes, subcutaneamente no dorso. Após uma semana da última imunização, os animias foram desafiados com formas promastigotas. O desenvolvimento das lesões nos animais foram acompanhadas por seis ou oito semanas pós desafio (PD), quando os animais foram sacrificados para análise da carga parasitária e dos aspectos relacionados às respostas imune celular e humoral. Camundongos da linhagem BALB/c foram altamente susceptíveis à infecção, uma vez que as mudanças histopatológicas e da imunidade humoral foram mais pronunciadas nos camundongos BALB/c que em C57BL/6. Os antígenos secretados/excretados de baixa massa molecular induziram alta taxa de proteção em comparação aos animais não imunizados, já os antígenos secretados/excretados de média massa molecular protegeram intermediariamente os animais, possivelmente pela alta expressão de IFN-g e IL-4 nos linfócitos T CD8+. AgAma e AgPro tiveram uma resposta antagônica nos animais, pois o AgAma suprimiu a produção de IFN-g e IL-12, contudo houve maior produção de TGF-b, facilitando o aumento do parasitismo na pele e em linfonodos. A despeito da detecção de TGF-b nos animais imunizados com AgPro, houve um balanço entre a produção de citocinas, com a participação de IL-12 e IFN-g, que levou a um controle do parasitismo em pele. Através da purificação do AgPro foi visto que os antígenos F1 e F5 protegeram os animais da infecção na pele após desafio, e ainda F1 também protegeu os linfonodos destes animais. Os antígenos F3 e F4 levaram a exacerbação das lesões de pele. A identificação, por espectrometria de massa, do antígeno F1 revelou a presença de 67 componentes, sendo que a maioria deles não possui identificação. Ainda, o antígeno F1 protegeu duradouramente os animais associado à estimulação de linfócitos T CD8+ de memória, contudo a presença de baixos números de parasitos pode ser o reflexo da alta produção de IL-10. Estes dados indicam que o antígeno F1 pode representar um importante candidato vacinal contra a Leishmaniose Tegumentar AmericanaLeishmania (Viannia) shawi specie was recently characterized by Lainson group. Currently, studies indicate important medical and epidemiological role of this parasite in Brazil. Therefore, the aims of this study were to characterize the experimental murine model of this infection, purify proteic antigens and evaluate their protection degrees after challenge. To characterize the murine model of infection, BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice were infected in the footpad with promastigote forms, and the histopathological and immunological findings were evaluated during the evolution of infection. For the immunization studies, 10 different antigens were used, as follow: three released/excreted by promastigote forms of L. (V.) shawi; two intracellular soluble antigens from amastigote (AgAma) and promastigote forms (AgPro), and 5 proteic fractions purified from soluble intracellular antigens from promastigote forms. These antigens have been used to immunize BALB/c mice twice, subcutaneously in the rump. After 1 week of last immunization, the animals were challenged. The lesion developments in animals were followed during either six or eight weeks post-challenge (PC), when the animals were sacrificed to evaluate the parasite load and aspects of cellular and humoral immune responses. BALB/c mice were the most susceptible to L. (V.) shawi infection, since the histopathological and humoral changes were higher in BALB/c than C57BL/6 mice. Secreted/excreted antigens of low molecular mass induced high protection rate compared to non-immunized mice, already mice immunized with secreted/released antigens of medium molecular mass showed mild protection, possibly caused by high expression of IFN-g and IL-4 by CD8+ T lymphocytes. AgAma and AgPro showed antagonic response in animals, since AgAma suppressed the IFN-g and IL-12 production, however high level of TGF-b has been detected, allowing the increasing of parasitism in the skin and lymph nodes. In spite of the detection of TGF-b in AgPro-immunized mice, there was a balance in the cytokines production, with the participation of IFN-g and IL-12, leading to parasite control in skin. Through the purification of AgPro, it was observed a protective effect of F1 and F5 antigens in the skin after challenge; in addition, F1 also protected the lymph nodes of BALB/c mice. Both F3 and F4 antigens exacerbated the skin infection. The identification, by mass spectrometry, revealed that F1 was composed by 67 components, and the majority has not been identified till now. Moreover, F1 induced long-lasting immunity in BALB/c mice, associated to generation of memory CD8+ T lymphocytes, however low parasitism could be the reflect of high production of IL-10. These data indicate which F1 antigen could be an important vaccine candidate against American Tegumentar Leishmaniasi

MYZOBDELLA PLATENSIS (HIRUNDINIDA: PISCICOLIDAE) IS TRUE PARASITE of BLUE CRABS (CRUSTACEA: PORTUNIDAE)

Leeches exhibit a marked scope of diversity, including different kinds of symbiosis. The aim of the present study was to demonstrate through biochemical and histological analysis that a species of piscicolid leech, Myzobdella platensis, is a true parasite of blue crabs, feeding on their hemolymph and using them as a site for cocoon deposition. In a total of 48 blue crabs collected on October 2007 at 3 sites of the Sao Vicente Estuary, 12 specimens were infested with leeches. Callinectes bocourti (n = 7) was the most infested species with leeches and cocoons; it was chosen for biochemical and histological assays. The immunoblotting assays showed a positive reaction of the proteins in the intestinal samples of leeches collected from crabs using antihemocyanin polyclonal antibody of Ampullaria canaliculata. In addition. leech intestinal samples were recognized by antihemolymph polyclonal antibody of nonparasitized blue crabs. Histological sections of leech gut showed hemocytes and a granular matrix similar to those found in crab blood vessels. Collectively, this evidence strongly suggests a parasitic interaction between the leech M. platensis and the blue crab C. bocourti, in which the former utilizes the latter as a site for cocoon deposition and possibly for dispersal similar to that proposed for Myzobdella lugubris in Callinectes sapidus in North America.Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq

Leishmanicidal Activity and Ultrastructural Changes of Maslinic Acid Isolated from Hyptidendron canum

The therapeutic arsenal for the treatment of leishmaniasis is limited and has serious obstacles, such as variable activity, high toxicity, and costs. To overcome such limitations, it becomes urgent to characterize new bioactive molecules. Plants produce and accumulate different classes of bioactive compounds, and these molecules can be studied as a strategy to combat leishmaniasis. The study presented herein evaluated the leishmanicidal effect of maslinic acid isolated from the leaves of Hyptidendron canum (Lamiaceae) and investigated the morphological that occurred on Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum upon treatment. Maslinic acid was active and selective against promastigote and amastigote forms in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, it was not toxic to peritoneal macrophages isolated from golden hamsters, while miltefosine and amphotericin B showed mild toxicity for macrophages. Morphological changes in promastigotes of L. (L.) infantum treated with maslinic acid were related to cytoplasmic degeneration, intense exocytic activity, and blebbing in the kDNA; disruption of mitochondrial cristae was observed in some parasites. The nucleus of promastigote forms seems to be degraded and the chromatin fragmented, suggesting that maslinic acid triggers programmed cell death. These results indicate that maslinic acid may be an interesting molecule to develop new classes of drugs against leishmaniasis

The effect of phospholipase A2 from Crotalus durissus collilineatus on Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis infection

In this study, the effect of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) derived from Crotalus durissus collilineatus was evaluated in vitro and in vivo on experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. The promastigote and amastigote forms treated with PLA2 presented increased growth rate. In vivo studies showed that PLA2-treated Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis promastigotes increased the size of lesions in BALB/c mice, and histopathological analysis showed numerous necrotic regions presenting a higher density of polymorphonuclear, mononuclear, and amastigote cells. Additionally, infected macrophages treated with PLA2 were able to generate prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Cytokine quantification showed that the supernatant from infected macrophages presented moderate and high amounts of IL-2 and IL-10, respectively. However, in PLA2-treated infected macrophages, suppression of IL-2 levels occurred, but not of IL-10 levels. Observation also revealed that both the supernatant and lysate of L. (L.) amazonensis promastigotes exhibited PLA2 activity, which, in the presence of dexamethasone, showed no reduction in their activities; while glucocorticoid maintained the ability of promastigote forms to infect macrophages, which presented values similar to controls. In conclusion, the results indicate that PLA2 may be a progression factor for cutaneous leishmaniasis, since the PLA2 effect suppressed IL-2 levels and generated PGE2, an inflammatory lipid mediator

Related Pentacyclic Triterpenes Have Immunomodulatory Activity in Chronic Experimental Visceral Leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the flagellated protozoa of the genus Leishmania that affects millions of people around the world. Drugs employed in the treatment of leishmaniasis have limited efficacy and induce local and systemic side effects to the patients. Natural products are an interesting alternative to treat leishmaniasis, because some purified molecules are selective toward parasites and not to the host cells. Thus, the aim of the present study was to compare the in vitro antileishmanial activity of the triterpenes betulin (Be), lupeol (Lu), and ursolic acid (UA); analyze the physiology and morphology of affected organelles; analyze the toxicity of selected triterpenes in golden hamsters; and study the therapeutic activity of triterpenes in hamsters infected with L. (L.) infantum as well as the cellular immunity induced by studied molecules. The triterpenes Lu and UA were active on promastigote (IC50=4.0±0.3 and 8.0±0.2 μM, respectively) and amastigote forms (IC50=17.5±0.4 and 3.0±0.2 μM, respectively) of L. (L.) infantum, and their selectivity indexes (SI) toward amastigote forms were higher (≥13.4 and 14, respectively) than SI of miltefosine (2.7). L. (L.) infantum promastigotes treated with Lu and UA showed cytoplasmic degradation, and in some of these areas, cell debris were identified, resembling autophagic vacuoles, and parasite mitochondria were swelled, fragmented, and displayed membrane potential altered over time. Parasite cell membrane was not affected by studied triterpenes. Studies of toxicity in golden hamster showed that Lu did not alter blood biochemical parameters associated with liver and kidney functions; however, a slight increase of aspartate aminotransferase level in animals treated with 2.5 mg/kg of UA was detected. Lu and UA triterpenes eliminated amastigote forms in the spleen (87.5 and 95.9% of reduction, respectively) and liver of infected hamster (95.9 and 99.7% of reduction, respectively); and UA showed similar activity at eliminating amastigote forms in the spleen and liver than amphotericin B (99.2 and 99.8% of reduction). The therapeutic activity of both triterpenes was associated with the elevation of IFN-γ and/or iNOS expression in infected treated animals. This is the first comparative work showing the in vitro activity, toxicity, and therapeutic activity of Lu and UA in the chronic model of visceral leishmaniasis caused by L. (L.) infantum; additionally, both triterpenes activated cellular immune response in the hamster model of visceral leishmaniasis

Analysis of the protective potential of antigens released by Leishmania (Viannia) shawi promastigotes

Leishmania (Viannia) shawi causes cutaneous lesions in humans. Parasite antigens conferring significant protection against American tegumentar leishmaniosis (ATL) might be important for the development of effective vaccine. Therefore, this work evaluates the protective effect of antigenic fractions released by L. shawi. Antigens released by promastigotes to culture medium were concentrated and isolated by SDS-PAGE. The three main fractions LsPass1 (>75 kDa), LsPass2 (75-50 kDa) and LsPass3 (<50 kDa) were electro-eluted according with their molecular mass. Immunized BALB/c mice were challenged with L. shawi promastigotes and the course of infection monitored during 5 weeks. LsPass1-challenged mice showed no protection, however, a strong degree of protection associated to smaller lesions and high expression of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha by CD4(+) T, CD8(+) T and double negative CD4CD8 cells was achieved in LsPass3-challenged mice. Furthermore, LsPass2-challenged mice showed an intermediated degree of protection associated to high levels of IFN-gamma, IL-4 and IL-10 mRNA. In spite of increased expression of IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha, high amounts of IL-4 and IL-10 mRNA were also detected in LsPass3-challenged mice indicating a possible contribution of these cytokines for the persistence of a residual number of parasites that may be important in inducing long-lasting immunity. Therefore, LsPass3 seems to be an interesting alternative that should be considered in the development of an effective vaccine against ATL.Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo [2007/56209-4, 07/50654-6]Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao PauloLIM50-HCFMUSPLIM50 (HCFMUSP)Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)European Union [PTDC/CVT/70275/2006]European Unio

Ursolic Acid Potentializes Conventional Therapy in Experimental Leishmaniasis

Ursolic acid (UA) is a triterpene with a broad array of pharmacological activities. In leishmaniasis, UA killed different species of parasites, and it was active in the experimental model of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis. Thus, the objective of this work was to study the therapeutic efficacy of the conventional drugs amphotericin B (AmB) or glucantime (Glu) combined with UA in experimental visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis, respectively. L. (L.) infantum-infected hamsters were treated with AmB alone or combined with UA. L. (L.) amazonensis-infected BALB/c mice were treated with Glu alone or combined with UA. Animals were treated for 15 consecutive days by intraperitoneal or intralesional routes. Following one week after the last dose, the tissue parasitism and cellular immune responses were analyzed. Hamsters treated with 0.2 and 1.0 mg/kg of AmB plus 1.0 mg/kg of UA showed low hepatic and splenic parasitisms; however, AmB given as monotherapy did not reduce the number of viable parasites in the spleen of treated animals. In cutaneous leishmaniasis, Glu given as monotherapy was inactive at 2.0 mg/kg, showed mild activity at 10.0 mg/kg, and at 50.0 mg/kg was highly active at eliminating parasites in the skin. When animals were treated with Glu plus UA, higher leishmanicidal activity was observed in comparison to all groups treated with monotherapy schemes, and such activity was related to lesion improvement and upregulation of IFN-γ production. Altogether, data suggest that the association of drugs for the treatment of leishmaniasis can increase the efficiency of the treatment and decrease the toxicity associated to the conventional drugs