Understanding the Role of Embeddedness in Shaping IT Professional Behavior

This dissertation studies how information technology (IT) professionals become embedded and, in turn, how embeddedness influences organizational behaviors. Embeddedness refers to the extent to which an individual is attached to an organizational or professional setting. Traditionally, embeddedness is defined as having three components: social links, fit and sacrifice. We analyze the traditional conceptualization of embeddedness and identify weaknesses. As a result, we refine these three components to belongingness, fit and utility. To deepen our understanding of embeddedness and its influence on organizational behavior, we develop a theory of embeddedness. We propose that embeddedness grows over time. As embeddedness increases, we argue that professionals develop a desire to remain in a firm and to engage in higher levels of task and contextual performance. We suggest that this relationship is moderated by the presence of external job alternatives. Finally, we propose that embeddedness is directly impacted by technical and contextual skills. To develop our research model, we tailor this theory to the IT context. We hypothesize that firm-specific IT skills, managerial skills and growth opportunities contribute to embeddedness within organizational settings. We also propose that generic IT skills and systems skills positively influence embeddedness within IT professional settings. We suggest that embeddedness within the firm contributes to task performance, contextual performance and retention. We account for the effect of labor markets, and we argue that the presence of job alternatives directly decreases task performance, contextual performance and retention. We also hypothesize that these job alternatives weaken the connection between embeddedness and behavioral outcomes. We tested this research model on a sample of 195 IT professionals. Results find that firm-specific IT skills, managerial skills and growth opportunities contribute to embeddedness within the firm. Embeddedness within the firm positively impacts task performance and contextual performance, and it decreases turnover intention. Generic IT skills and systems skills contribute to embeddedness within IT settings. Perceptions of job alternatives directly decrease task performance and increase turnover intention. Also, perceptions of job alternatives moderate the relationship between embeddedness and behavior. Results show that highly embedded IT professionals are very desirable employees. These professionals engage in higher levels of task performance, more contextual performance behaviors, and have less intention to quit. Furthermore, highly embedded IT professionals are more resistant to the effects of the labor market. While weakly embedded IT professionals vary work efforts based on the strength of the labor market, highly embedded IT professionals do not reduce their level of performance when the IT labor market is strong. Further, we find that IT skills exhibit a significant impact on an IT professional\u27s connection to their job, the IT function, their organization and the IT profession. These results have implications for research and practice. For research, we refine the concept of embeddedness and propose a theory of embeddedness. We also integrate labor market forces into the nomological network surrounding embeddedness. For practice, we demonstrate that highly embedded IT professionals are particularly valuable employees, and we direct managers to the IT skills and growth opportunities that contribute to embeddedness

The Strategic Problem of Information Security and Data Breaches

This paper considers the strategic uncertainties and impacts created by high-profile data breaches and discusses the unique strategic problem presented by information security breaches for organizational executives. Based on theory regarding strategic uncertainties, we develop a framework depicting a strategic perspective on breaches within and outside the firm. Then, within the major categories outlined by the framework, this research evaluates instances of 17 public disclosures of high-profile data breaches over the past four years. Based on our discussion of these 17 cases, we identify six major issues complicating strategic decision-making regarding security breaches and discuss guidance for managers

The Affect Effect: State Affect, Cognitions and IT Usage

This study presents state affect as a necessary theoretical and empirical component of information systems (IS) research models addressing the cognitions regarding, and usage of, information technology (IT). We position state affect as a powerful predictor of trusting cognitions and explain how state affect may also directly impact IT use. We tested our research model using data from 376 users of Microsoft Excel. Results indicate that positive and negative affect influence various trusting cognitions as well as directly impact post-adoptive use intentions. Our findings offer particular implications IS research models intending to comprehensively model cognitions and attitudes regarding IT and IT usage

A Great Escape: The Effect of Negative Public Affiliation on Belongingness to Virtual Communities

In this study, we study negative public affiliation, which we define as discomfort with being publicly linked to a potentially socially stigmatized group or interest. We investigate how users who feel negative public affiliation form feelings of belonging to a virtual community. We also consider the impact that brand congruity (how much a user identifies with an interest or brand) has on feelings of belonging. To investigate negative public affiliation, we drew a sample from members of Twilight-themed virtual communities and evaluated the interrelationship between negative public affiliation, brand congruity, and belongingness (how well users feel they fit in virtual communities). Our results indicate that high negative public affiliation and high brand congruity with Twilight positively impacted feelings of belonging: users who felt Twilight reflected their identity but felt uncomfortable publicly discussing their interest felt a stronger sense of belonging in relation to their virtual communities. Our study offers practical implications for firms seeking to design and maintain virtual communities that support the broadest possible group of users. Of equal importance, our study provides a new direction for information systems research on virtual communities and suggests a need to study users who participate in socially uncomfortable, stigmatized, or unacceptable communities

The Impact of Embeddedness on IT Worker Behavior

Embeddedness theory provides significant insight into understanding the dynamics that constrain and drive the behaviors of IT professionals. Embeddedness provides a frame for understanding the behavior of IT professionals in a variety of different settings, including their job, their place in the IT function, their place in their employing organization, and their relationship with their profession. Furthermore, embeddedness can explain how factors germane to the IT profession, such as learning demands, IT skills development and training can influence individual level outcomes, such as organizational citizenship behaviors, performance, absenteeism and turnover. We intend to gather data from a sample of IT professionals and will conduct data analysis via structural equation modeling

Information Technology Worker Recruitment: An Empirical Examination of Entry-Level IT Job Seekers’ Labor Market

This paper investigates two actors in IT recruitment: IT job seekers and IT employers. Signaling theory and image theory inform this research. Signaling theory suggests that there are unique groups of IT job seekers and IT employers. Image theory explains the implications of groups of IT job seekers’ have images of firms. Based on a closet qualitative study, we identify three images that IT job seekers use to classify employers: IT consulting firms, IT vendors, and non-IT-oriented firms that require in-house IT workers. To evaluate these images, we conduct two studies. Study 1 evaluates job seekers. Analysis of data collected from 491 entry-level IT job seekers suggests that unique groups of IT job seekers exist that possess distinct preferences for IT employers, firm and job characteristics as well as report different levels of preparatory job search activity. Study 2 focuses on the IT employers’ perspective. We segment IT employers based on the IT job seekers\u27 images. Results from a survey of 412 firm recruiters indicate that IT employers do not prefer different types of IT job applicants or engage in significantly different recruitment activities. Taken together, our studies provide a rich understanding of how IT job seekers view employers and how employers view job seekers

Workgroup Embeddedness and Professionalism among IT Professionals: Impacts on Work-Life Conflict and Organizational Citizenship

Over the course of their careers, IT professionals become embedded in their workplace. In the organizational behavior literature, research has found that job embeddedness provides direct, positive benefits for employers, including lower turnover intentions, lower levels of withdrawal behaviors, lower actual turnover, and more. In this paper, we present a more nuanced view, namely that embeddedness among IT professionals may influence the development of professionalized mindsets, which, in turn, has a mix of positive and negative consequences. To understand these relationships, we introduce a concept called workgroup embeddedness (WGE). WGE captures how IT professionals become embedded in their organizational workgroup or unit. We report a multiphase study that (1) developed a measure of WGE, (2) established the validity of WGE, and (3) evaluated the implications of WGE among 150 IT professionals using data collected at two points in time. We found that WGE drives an increase in professionalism, which, in turn, increases work-life conflict. Also, we found that both WGE and professionalism positively influence organizational citizenship behaviors. These findings indicate that WGE may play a role in socializing and driving more professionalized mindsets among IT professionals, such as professional identification, which leads to positive outcomes like citizenship behaviors but may come at the expense of negative consequences in professionals’ nonwork lives. Post hoc findings highlight that belief in public service and identification with the IT profession influence work-life conflict and organizational citizenship. We conclude with implications for research and practice

Does Professionalism Matter in the IT Workforce? An Empirical Examination of IT Professionals

This paper investigates the role of professionalism in the information technology (IT) workforce. We develop a model that describes how professionalism relates to attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors among IT professionals. Specifically, we hypothesize that dimensions of professionalism influence attitudes (including intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment), perceived job alternatives, job performance, and turnover. We test the research model with data, which includes supervisor evaluations and actual turnover data drawn from 214 IT professionals. Results show that some dimensions of professionalism demonstrate a positive relationship with intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, and job performance. Other dimensions have no effect or positively influence awareness of job alternatives, driving turnover intention. As the IT workforce grows increasingly professional, managers may benefit from more satisfied, harder-working IT personnel at the cost of having a workforce more connected to the labor market