Test-Retest Reliability of Tone- And 40 Hz Train-Evoked Gamma Oscillations in Female Rats and Their Sensitivity to Low-Dose NMDA Channel Blockade

Rationale: Schizophrenia patients consistently show deficits in sensory-evoked broadband gamma oscillations and click-evoked entrainment at 40 Hz, called the 40-Hz auditory steady-state response (ASSR). Since such evoked oscillations depend on cortical N-methyl D-aspartic acid (NMDA)-mediated network activity, they can serve as pharmacodynamic biomarkers in the preclinical and clinical development of drug candidates engaging these circuits. However, there are few test-retest reliability data in preclinical species, a prerequisite for within-subject testing paradigms. Objective: We investigated the long-term psychometric stability of these measures in a rodent model. Methods: Female rats with chronic epidural implants were used to record tone- and 40 Hz click-evoked responses at multiple time points and across six sessions, spread over 3 weeks. We assessed reliability using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Separately, we used mixed-effects ANOVA to examine time and session effects. Individual subject variability was determined using the coefficient of variation (CV). Lastly, to illustrate the importance of long-term measure stability for within-subject testing design, we used low to moderate doses of an NMDA antagonist MK801 (0.025–0.15 mg/kg) to disrupt the evoked response. Results: We found that 40-Hz ASSR showed good reliability (ICC=0.60–0.75), while the reliability of tone-evoked gamma ranged from poor to good (0.33–0.67). We noted time but no session effects. Subjects showed a lower variance for ASSR over tone-evoked gamma. Both measures were dose-dependently attenuated by NMDA antagonism. Conclusion: Overall, while both evoked gamma measures use NMDA transmission, 40-Hz ASSR showed superior psychometric properties of higher ICC and lower CV, relative to tone-evoked gamma

Effect of typical and atypical antipsychotics on the 40 Hz auditory steady-state response

Oscillations in the brain’s electrical potential, recorded through the technique of electroencephalography (EEG), reflect the ensemble activity of a large population of neurons. Auditory steady-state response (ASSR) is the time-locked entrainment in EEG to an auditory stimulus such as a train of clicks. ASSR to a 40 Hz (gamma frequency) click train is especially reduced in schizophrenia patients, reflecting the sensory processing deficits that impact real-world functional outcomes. Since the 40 Hz ASSR is demonstrable across species and is responsive to pharmacological treatments, it can be a translational biomarker for drug development studies. Prototypical antipsychotic drugs (APDs) like haloperidol and clozapine are examples of typical and atypical classes used to treat schizophrenia patients. While both are D2 receptor blockers, they have additional pharmacological effects that may differentiate them. Here, we investigated the acute effect of clozapine (atypical) or haloperidol (typical) on the 40 Hz ASSR, in two independent studies. The doses for the two drugs were chosen to reflect comparable in vivo D2 receptor occupancy. We used female Sprague-Dawley rats implanted with epidural EEG recording electrodes. In the first experiment, vehicle or clozapine 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg were administered (sc) and the 40 Hz ASSR paradigm (65 dB, 40 clicks for 1 second, 2-sec inter-stimulus interval) was used to record responses at 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes post-drug. Resting-state EEG was recorded at 60 minutes post-treatment. Treatment effects were evaluated on the evoked power and phase-locking factor (PLF), a measure of trial-to-trial consistency of the 40 Hz ASSR. Clozapine improved both measures in a dose and time-dependent manner. Clozapine also tended to reduce the resting-state gamma (30-100 Hz) power, a hallmark of cortical noise. However, the effect was not significant (P\u3e0.05). Next, we tested the effect of haloperidol on the 40 Hz ASSR. Doses of 0.02 mg/kg -0.08 mg/kg (sc) were evaluated at 30, 60, 90 and 120-minutes post-injection. Haloperidol failed to improve the 40 Hz ASSR (evoked power and PLF). Moreover, it had no discernible effect on the resting-state gamma. These results show that despite the comparable blockade of D2 receptors, the putative target for these APDs, clozapine, and haloperidol have different effects on the 40 Hz ASSR. We conclude that the effects of clozapine on 40 Hz ASSR may be unrelated to its affinity to D2 receptors and may be mediated through other pharmacological mechanisms

Prefrontal cortex is more vulnerable than primary auditory cortex to NMDA antagonism

The 40 Hz auditory steady state response (ASSR) is an EEG response of local neural synchrony that is evoked by the repeated presentation of a 40 Hz click train. While the principal cortical generators of this response appear to be the bilateral primary auditory cortices as they show the largest phase locking and evoked power, other regions across the cortical mantle synchronize too, including the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that receives input from the primary auditory cortex and is involved in higher order cognitive functions. In schizophrenia, it is hypothesized that NMDA-mediated disruption in PFC function contributes to cognitive deficits including working memory and executive function. In rodents, NMDA antagonists reliably disrupt set shifting, a working memory task linked to PFC function. It is however not known if NMDA antagonism would disrupt the 40 Hz ASSR in PFC. In the following study, we equipped a group of female SD rats with epidural electrodes targeting the PFC (2.5 mm anterior and 0.8 mm lateral to bregma) and the primary auditory cortex (4.5 mm caudal, 7.5 mm lateral and 3.5 mm ventral to bregma). Two epidural screw electrodes on cerebellum served as ground and reference. After recovery from surgery and acclimation, rats were pretreated with small to modest doses of the NMDA antagonist MK801 (0.025, 0.05 and 0.1 mpk) or saline (1 ml/kg, sc) in a cross-over design, tethered to EEG cables and the EEG signal was amplified and acquired (Signal 7.0; CED1401 Micro 3). Trains of square waves (~ 1 ms duration; 40/s) were generated and played through the house speakers at ~ 65 dB SPL. EEG was acquired as 4 s sweeps while the click train played between 1-2 s of each sweep; 75 trials were recorded from each subject. Sixty minutes after vehicle treatment, robust EEG entrainment was noted in both the temporal cortex as well as the PFC. As expected, the EEG signal power from the temporal cortex was notably larger compared to the PFC. Nevertheless, both regions showed clear 40 Hz entrainment to click trains. However, MK801 effect on the 40 Hz ASSR was disparate across the two regions. In the prefrontal cortex, the intertrial coherence (ITC) of the 40 Hz ASSR was strongly disrupted by MK801 at all doses (P\u3c0.001; Dunnett’s test). Evoked power was significantly reduced only at the highest dose (P\u3c0.0001). In primary auditory cortex, relative to vehicle treatment, evoked power showed a significant increase after 0.025 mpk and 0.05 mpk dose but declined significantly after the 0.1 mpk dose (P\u3c0.05). However, ITC was unaffected (P\u3e0.05). These results indicate that gamma neural synchrony in the PFC is more vulnerable to NMDA antagonist- mediated disruption, as compared to the primary auditory cortex. Moreover, it suggests that executive and cognitive functions may be more readily compromised by NMDA-mediated transmission disturbance even as auditory processing is enhanced or unaffected

The qEEG Signature of Selective NMDA NR2B Negative Allosteric Modulators; A Potential Translational Biomarker for Drug Development

<div><p>The antidepressant activity of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor channel blocker, ketamine, has led to the investigation of negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) selective for the NR2B receptor subtype. The clinical development of NR2B NAMs would benefit from a translational pharmacodynamic biomarker that demonstrates brain penetration and functional inhibition of NR2B receptors in preclinical species and humans. Quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG) is a translational measure that can be used to demonstrate pharmacodynamic effects across species. NMDA receptor channel blockers, such as ketamine and phencyclidine, increase the EEG gamma power band, which has been used as a pharmacodynamic biomarker in the development of NMDA receptor antagonists. However, detailed qEEG studies with ketamine or NR2B NAMs are lacking in nonhuman primates. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects on the qEEG power spectra of the NR2B NAMs traxoprodil (CP-101,606) and BMT-108908 in nonhuman primates, and to compare them to the NMDA receptor channel blockers, ketamine and lanicemine. Cynomolgus monkeys were surgically implanted with EEG radio-telemetry transmitters, and qEEG was measured after vehicle or drug administration. The relative power for a number of frequency bands was determined. Ketamine and lanicemine increased relative gamma power, whereas the NR2B NAMs traxoprodil and BMT-108908 had no effect. Robust decreases in beta power were elicited by ketamine, traxoprodil and BMT-108908; and these agents also produced decreases in alpha power and increases in delta power at the doses tested. These results suggest that measurement of power spectra in the beta and delta bands may represent a translational pharmacodynamic biomarker to demonstrate functional effects of NR2B NAMs. The results of these studies may help guide the selection of qEEG measures that can be incorporated into early clinical evaluation of NR2B NAMs in healthy humans.</p></div

Non-selective NMDA channel blockers elicit robust changes in beta 1 (13–19 Hz) qEEG in cynomolgus monkeys.

<p>Y-axis is relative power in beta 1 (13–19 Hz) frequency band of the EEG power spectrum. X-axis is time after IM or IV administration. N = 5–6. Error Bars are SEM. Beta 1 band after 0.56 mg/kg IV, ketamine (closed symbol) differs from vehicle (open symbol) at p < .05 level. (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0152729#pone.0152729.t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>). Ketamine caused a decrease in beta 1 relative power after 3 mg/kg IM (closed symbol), and differs from vehicle (open symbol) at p < .001 level (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0152729#pone.0152729.t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>). Lanicemine 5.6 mg/kg IM (closed symbol), decreased beta 1 relative power but was not significantly different from vehicle (open symbol), p>.05 (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0152729#pone.0152729.t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>).</p

NR2b selective NAM’s have no effect on gamma (30–55 Hz) qEEG in cynomolgus monkeys.

<p>Y-axis is relative power in gamma (30–55 Hz) frequency band of the EEG power spectrum. X-axis is time after IM or IV administration. Results are the mean ± SEM (N = 5–6). Traxoprodil, 10 mg/kg IM and BMT-108908 3 mg/kg IV (closed symbol) had no effect on gamma, <i>p</i>>.05 (<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0152729#pone.0152729.t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>).</p