Baseline characteristics of the participants.

<p>Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Abbreviations: Free fatty acids (FFA), Triglycerides (TAG), Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue (SAT), Visceral adipose tissue (VAT).</p>1<p>Significantly different (p<0.05) from lean subjects.</p>2<p>For VAT, SAT en VAT/SAT ratio n = 17 for lean subjects, n = 18 for obese subjects and n = 4 for obese diabetic subjects.</p

Macronutrient composition of the fat shakes.

<p>Macronutrient composition of the fat shakes.</p

Changes in plasma metabolic parameters at 2 h and 4 h after high-fat shake consumption.

<p>Mean (± SEM) changes in plasma triglyceride (A), free fatty acid (B), insulin (C) and glucose (D) concentrations of lean subjects (n = 18), obese subjects (n = 18) and obese diabetic subjects (n = 6) after consumption of 3 different shakes, enriched in saturated fatty acids (SFA, line with squares), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA, dotted line with triangles) or n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA, dashed line with circles). Different letters indicate significant differences (p<0.05) between shakes at a given time.</p

Changes in metabolic parameters in plasma of lean subjects (n = 18), obese subjects (n = 18) and obese diabetic subjects (n = 6) at 2 h and 4 h after high fat shake consumption.

<p>Values are expressed as mean ± SD. Saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), Free fatty acids (FFA), Triglycerides (TAG).</p

Changes (mean ± sd) in plasma cytokines and ex vivo LPS-stimulated TNFα production of PBMCs after high fat shake consumption.

1<p>no significant effect when obese diabetic subjects are excluded from analysis, ²baseline values significantly different from those of lean and obese subjects, ³This measurement was done in a subsample of 13 lean and 15 obese subjects.</p

Pure flavonoid epicatechin and whole genome gene expression profiles in circulating immune cells in adults with elevated blood pressure: A randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial

<div><p>Cocoa consumption has beneficial cardiometabolic effects, but underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Epicatechin, the cocoa major monomeric flavan-3-ol, is considered to contribute to these cardio-protective effects. We investigated effects of pure epicatechin supplementation on gene expression profiles of immune cells in humans. In a double blind, placebo-controlled cross-over trial, 32 (pre)hypertensive subjects aged 30 to 80, received two 4-week interventions, i.e. epicatechin (100mg/day) or placebo with a 4-week wash-out between interventions. Gene expression profiles of peripheral blood mononuclear cells were determined before and after both interventions. Epicatechin regulated 1180 genes, of which 234 differed from placebo. Epicatechin upregulated gene sets involved in transcription and tubulin folding and downregulated gene sets involved in inflammation, PPAR signalling and adipogenesis. Several negatively enriched genes within these gene sets were involved in insulin signalling. Most inhibited upstream regulators within the epicatechin intervention were cytokines or involved in inflammation. No upstream regulators were identified compared to placebo. Epicatechin, a cocoa flavan-3-ol, reduces gene expression involved in inflammation, PPAR-signalling and adipogenesis in immune cells. Effects were mild but our findings increase our understanding and provide new leads on how epicatechin rich products like cocoa may affect immune cells and exert cardiometabolic protective effects.</p></div

Flow diagram showing the number of genes of which the expression was changed after 4-week epicatechin or placebo supplementation and the number of genes that significantly changed in expression between the epicatechin or placebo intervention.

<p>A change was considered significant if two-sided <i>P</i><0.05.</p

Gene sets significantly downregulated within the epicatechin intervention (epicatechin) and between intervention arms (epicatechin versus placebo).

<p>Gene sets significantly downregulated within the epicatechin intervention (epicatechin) and between intervention arms (epicatechin versus placebo).</p

Expression heat map of contributing genes within the downregulated gene sets involved in inflammation, PPAR signalling, AMPK signalling and adipogenesis.

<p>Subjects were hierarchically clustered via the complete agglomeration method. Expression changes are indicated as individual signal-log-ratios (SLR) of T = 4 weeks versus T = 0 weeks. Down-regulation or up-regulation of gene expression is presented on a colour scale, ranging from green (downregulated, SLR ≤-0.25) to red (upregulated, SLR ≥ 0.25).</p

Baseline and postprandial values of vascular function measures after high fat/high energy (HF/HE) or average breakfast control shake consumption.

<p>Values are pooled mean ± SD of all three study days (n = 20). Acetylcholine (Ach), sodium nitroprusside (SNP), area under the curve (AUC), beats per minute (BPM), blood pressure (BP), augmentation index (AIX), flow mediated dilatation (FMD).</p