Relief or agricultural development? Emergency seed projects, farmer seed systems and the dissemination of modern varieties in Mali and Niger

Emergency seed projects tend to be implemented in response to natural disasters such as drought, flooding, cyclones, hurricanes, and civil conflict, particularly those involving population displacement or return. The assumption on which these projects are based presumes that farmers lose or eat their seed so that seed is no longer locally available or accessible. Recent research, however, haschallenged this assumption (Longley and Sperling 2002). Studies undertaken in southern Sudan (Jones et al. 2002), Somalia (Longley et al. 2001), southern Africa (Friis-Hansen and Rohrbach 1993), Rwanda (Sperling 1996), and Sierra Leone (Longley 1997) have shown that not all farmers lose their seed, and - even if they do - seed is often locally available through grain markets or from farmers in neighboring areas. Implicit in such findings is the need to reconsider the aims and modalities of conventional emergency seed projects. If it is assumed that farmers affected by disaster have no seed, then the aim of an emergency seed project is ostensibly to provide farmers with something to plant in the forthcoming season. However, as we shall see in section 5, there are, in practice, various other underlying objectives - often unarticulated - for which seed is given in emergencies. One of these underlying aims is the promotion of modern varieties. Some of the existing guidelines on emergency seed provisioning recommend the use of local varieties which tend to be more appropriate than modern or improved varieties (Chemonics 1996); others present a more nuanced view, advising that the choice of varieties will depend on the farming community's pre-disaster situation (ODI 1996). If the objective of an emergency seed intervention is 'to return the local farming system to a situation as close to its predisaster status as possible' (ODI 1996: 16), then modern varieties should only be given if farmers depended on modern varieties prior to the emergency. This paper challenges this position, suggesting that - in some recurrent or long-lasting crisis situations, and provided that adequate varietal trials have been undertaken - carefully chosen modern varieties may usefully increase varietal diversity. Rather than returning to the pre-disaster situation, such an approach aims to enhance the capacity of farmers' seed and agricultural systems. But an intervention that sets out to promote varietal diversity and strengthen local agricultural systems must be implemented very differently to an intervention that aims to provide emergency seed aid. As such, it might best be considered as part of a longer-term rehabilitation strategy as opposed to a short-term relief activity; in other words, seed system support rather than emergency seed provisioning1 (ODI 1996)

Risk factors and spatial distribution of Schistosoma mansoni infection among preschool-aged children in Blapleu, Biankouma district, Western Côte d'Ivoire

Schistosoma mansoni infection is common among school-age children (SAC) in western Cote d'Ivoire. Little is known on the infection rate of preschool-aged children (PSAC) due to epidemiological data deficiency and nonappropriate formulation of the drug. Thus, mass drug administration for schistosomiasis control mainly targets SAC. This study aims to identify the risk factors and spatial distribution of S. mansoni infection among PSAC in Blapleu, endemic foci of S. mansoni. We carried out a cross-sectional study in households with PSAC aged 1-6 years. A structured questionnaire was administered to mothers/guardians to obtain data on sociodemographics and water contact behaviour of children. Point-of-care circulating cathodic antigen (POC-CCA) immunodiagnostic test in urine and Kato-Katz (K-K) method with stool were used for S. mansoni infection diagnosis. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the relationship between S. mansoni infection and sociodemographic data. Coordinates recorded by a Global Positioning System of households, water source points, and infected PSAC were used to map the spatial distribution of S. mansoni infection cases. This study was conducted with 350 PSAC aged 1-6 years. The overall infection prevalence of S. mansoni varies from 31.43% with the K-K method to 62.86% with the POC-CCA. PSAC aged 2-6 years were highly infected with S. mansoni than those aged 1-2 years (OR = 14.24, 95% CI: 5.85-34.64). PSAC who did not have access and who do not live close to the infected water source were at a significant lower risk of S. mansoni infection (OR = 0.13, 95% CI: 0.057-0.30). The main purpose of water contact of PSAC was to help their mother for laundry that occurs weekly. In Blapleu, a high risk of S. mansoni infection was observed among PSAC. Schistosomiasis control effort in such localities should include information, education, and communication, water, sanitation, and hygiene, and particularly chemotherapy targeting PSAC, reinforcing the need of the paediatric praziquantel formulation

Hodgkin Lymphoma at the Paediatric Oncology Unit of Gabriel Touré Teaching Hospital, Bamako, Mali: 5-Year Experience

Introduction. The aim of this retrospective, unicentric study over 5 years is to describe the epidemiologic, pathologic, clinic and therapeutic aspects of children treated for Hodgkin lymphoma in our paediatric oncology unit. Patients and Methods. From January 2005 to December 2009, all children under 18 years of age, with Hodgkin lymphoma were included in this study. The treatment protocol was the GFAOP (Groupe Franco—Africain d'Oncologie Pédiatrique) Hodgkin lymphoma treatment protocol. Results. During the study period, 217 cancer cases were diagnosed in our centre. Of these cases, 7 were Hodgkin Lymphoma (LH) (0.04%). The mean age was 11.7 years. The sex-ratio was 6/1. 4% (5/7) of patients were stage IIB and 28.6% (2/7) stage IIIB of Ann-Arbor classification. There were 3 cases (42.8%) of sclero-nodular subtype, 2 cases (28.6%) of lymphocyte-rich classical HL subtype, 1 case (14.3%) of mixed cellularity and 1 case (14.3%) of lymphocyte depleted subtype. With a median followup of 37 months, 5 patients (71.4%) are alive, and 2 patients (28.6%) died. Conclusion. Broader multicentric studies are needed for more accurate data on this malignancy

Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein 2: epitope mapping and fine specificity of human antibody response against non-polymorphic domains.

BACKGROUND: Two long synthetic peptides representing the dimorphic and constant C-terminal domains of the two allelic families of Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface proteins 2 are considered promising malaria vaccine candidates. The aim of the current study is to characterize the immune response (epitope mapping) in naturally exposed individuals and relate immune responses to the risk of clinical malaria. METHODS: To optimize their construction, the fine specificity of human serum antibodies from donors of different age, sex and living in four distinct endemic regions was determined in ELISA by using overlapping 20 mer peptides covering the two domains. Immune purified antibodies were used in Western blot and immunofluorescence assay to recognize native parasite derivate proteins. RESULTS: Immunodominant epitopes were characterized, and their distribution was similar irrespective of geographic origin, age group and gender. Acquisition of a 3D7 family and constant region-specific immune response and antibody avidity maturation occur early in life while a longer period is needed for the corresponding FC27 family response. In addition, the antibody response to individual epitopes within the 3D7 family-specific region contributes to protection from malaria infection with different statistical weight. It is also illustrated that affinity-purified antibodies against the dimorphic or constant regions recognized homologous and heterologous parasites in immunofluorescence and homologous and heterologous MSP2 and other polypeptides in Western blot. CONCLUSION: Data from this current study may contribute to a development of MSP2 vaccine candidates based on conserved and dimorphic regions thus bypassing the complexity of vaccine development related to the polymorphism of full-length MSP2

Effectiveness of four different interventions against Schistosoma haematobium in a seasonal transmission setting of Côte d'Ivoire: a cluster randomized trial

BACKGROUND: Annual mass drug administration (MDA) using praziquantel is the cornerstone of schistosomiasis morbidity control, but is not sufficient to interrupt transmission. We implemented a cluster-randomized trial to compare the effectiveness of four different intervention packages to interrupt transmission of Schistosoma haematobium in a seasonal transmission setting of Cote d'Ivoire. METHODS: Sixty-four localities with a S. haematobium prevalence in school children aged 13-14 years above 4% were randomly assigned to one of four intervention arms over a 3-year period: (1) the current standard strategy consisting of annual MDA before peak of transmission; (2) annual MDA after peak of transmission; (3) biannual MDA; and (4) standard MDA combined with snail control. The primary outcome was prevalence and intensity of S. haematobium infection in children aged 9-12 years 1 year after the final intervention, using urine filtration performed by experienced microscopists. RESULTS: By study end, we observed the lowest S. haematobium prevalence in the biannual MDA, compared to the standard treatment arm (0.6% vs. 7.5%; odds ratio [OR] = 0.07, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.02 to 0.24). The prevalence in arms 2 and 4 was about 3.5%, which was not statistically significantly different from the standard strategy (both ORs 0.4, 95% CI = 0.1 to ~1.8). New cases of infection were still observed in all arms at study end. CONCLUSIONS: Biannual MDA was the only regimen that outperformed the standard treatment. All strategies resulted in decreased prevalence of infection, however none of them was able to interrupt transmission of S. haematobium within a 3-year period

Malaria protection due to sickle haemoglobin depends on parasite genotype

Host genetic factors can confer resistance against malaria1, raising the question of whether this has led to evolutionary adaptation of parasite populations. Here we searched for association between candidate host and parasite genetic variants in 3,346 Gambian and Kenyan children with severe malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum. We identified a strong association between sickle haemoglobin (HbS) in the host and three regions of the parasite genome, which is not explained by population structure or other covariates, and which is replicated in additional samples. The HbS-associated alleles include nonsynonymous variants in the gene for the acyl-CoA synthetase family member2-4 PfACS8 on chromosome 2, in a second region of chromosome 2, and in a region containing structural variation on chromosome 11. The alleles are in strong linkage disequilibrium and have frequencies that covary with the frequency of HbS across populations, in particular being much more common in Africa than other parts of the world. The estimated protective effect of HbS against severe malaria, as determined by comparison of cases with population controls, varies greatly according to the parasite genotype at these three loci. These findings open up a new avenue of enquiry into the biological and epidemiological significance of the HbS-associated polymorphisms in the parasite genome and the evolutionary forces that have led to their high frequency and strong linkage disequilibrium in African P. falciparum populations

Transforming a traditional commons-based seed system through collaborative networks of farmer seed-cooperatives and public breeding programs: the case of sorghum in Mali

Malian farmers’ traditional system for managing seed of sorghum, an indigenous crop of vital importance for food security and survival, can be conceptualized as a commons. Although this system maintains a wide range of varieties and helps ensure access to seed, its ability to create and widely disseminate new varieties to meet evolving opportunities and challenges is limited. A network of farmer groups, public breeding programs, and development organizations collaborating in decentralized creation and dissemination of sorghum varieties in Mali is examined regarding (1) how the network developed and what activities it conducts; (2) the resulting varietal diversity, varietal performance and organizational models; and (3) the elements of the traditional seed system that were maintained, strengthened or transformed. A single-case study approach was used that relies on published literature, official catalogues of released varieties and a database of farmer seed-cooperative requests for foundation seed. The functioning of the network and its varietal-, seed-, and organizational- outcomes are documented and the elements of the traditional sorghum seed system that are maintained or strengthened are analyzed. The evolution of the network’s reliance on commoning as a social process and its strengthening of core Seed Commons features are discussed with a view to the network’s contributions to targeted development outcomes and potential replicability. The case demonstrates how creating a framework for collaboration, enabling actors and organizations to take on collective responsibility while maintaining distributed decision-making at local level, opens opportunities for transforming farming- and food-systems towards sustainability and resilience

Markets and climate are driving rapid change in farming practices in Savannah West Africa

Agricultural practices have constantly changed in West Africa, and understanding the factors that have driven the changes may help guide strategies to promote sustainable agriculture in the region. To contribute to such efforts, this paper analyzes drivers of change in farming practices in the region using data obtained from surveys of 700 farming households in five countries (Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, Niger and Senegal). The results showed that farmers have adopted various practices in response to the challenges they have faced during the last decade. A series of logit models showed that most changes farmers made to their practices are undertaken for multiple reasons. Land use and management changes including expanding farmed areas and using mineral fertilization and manure are positively related to perceived changes in the climate, such as more erratic rainfall. Planting new varieties, introducing new crops, crop rotation, expanding farmed area and using pesticides are positively associated with new market opportunities. Farm practices that require relatively high financial investment such as use of pesticides, drought-tolerant varieties and improved seeds were positively associated with the provision of technical and financial support for farmers through development projects and policies. Changes in markets and climate are both helping to promote needed changes in farming practices in West Africa. Therefore, policies that foster the development of markets for agricultural products, and improved weather- and climate-related information linked to knowledge of appropriate agricultural innovations in different environments are needed