Visitations by Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus) to and Possible Geophagy of Materials from an Iron-Rich Excavation in North-Central British Columbia

Fecal pellet samples and photo data were collected and analyzed to investigate the suspected occurrence of geophagy of soils by Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus) at a small iron-rich mineral excavation in north-central British Columbia. Pellet samples from Snowshoe Hares collected near the excavation site in both February 2004 and 2005 showed higher levels of iron (II) sulphate in pellets than in samples from control areas (P < 0.05). Using remote wildlife camera technology, we determined that Snowshoe Hares accounted for 72% of visits by mammals to the site. Ninety percent of these visits occurred at night; this timing corresponds with the use of mineral licks by several other species of mammals in North America. Use occurred in winter (49%) and spring (47%), but was rare in summer and autumn, and may have coincided with periods of nutritional stress in Snowshoe Hares

Canada Lynx (Lynx canadensis) detection and behaviour using remote cameras during the breeding season

The efficacy of surveys in detecting Canada Lynx (Lynx canadensis) can vary considerably by geographic area. We conducted surveys using digital passive infrared trail video-cameras from January to April 2013, during the breeding season of the Canada Lynx, in the John Prince Research Forest in central British Columbia. We used snow-track surveys to test the efficacy of our camera surveys. We measured trail camera detection rates by survey week and location and we noted Canada Lynx activity and behaviours recorded by the cameras. The detection rate increased between January and April, reaching a peak of 8 Canada Lynx/100 camera-days in early April. Canada Lynx spent more time at camera sites displaying behaviours such as scent-marking and cheek-rubbing in late March. The combination of both snow-track and trail camera surveys was especially effective, with Canada Lynx detected at 77% of all monitored sites. Depending on survey objectives, it may be beneficial to conduct camera as well as other non-invasive survey methods for Canada Lynx during the breeding season, when survey efficacy and detection rates are maximized

An assessment of the efficacy of rub stations for detection and abundance surveys of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis).

Barbed and scented rub pads that rely on a cheek-rubbing behavioural response are a standard survey design that has been used extensively across the range of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis Kerr, 1792). However, there have not been any published studies evaluating the effectiveness of rub stations for detecting lynx by comparing other simultaneous survey methods. We used a combination of paired rub stations and remote cameras at 41 sites to compare detection probabilities between the two methods and conduct a mark-recapture population estimate of Canada lynx using rub stations to further interpret our findings. The detection probability calculated using cameras approached 1.0 for most of the winter season (x Ě = 0.88), while it remained less than 0.52 for hair rub stations (x Ě = 0.27). The low and variable detection probability using hair snags, high detection probability using cameras, and the potential gender or individual bias in rubbing behaviour based on our mark-recapture analysis suggest rub stations are not the most efficient survey method available for Canada lynx. Until additional research incorporating spatial scale, seasonal timing, gender bias, and survey design is conducted, we urge caution in the use of hair stations that rely on the cheek-rubbing behaviour of Canada lynx.The accepted manuscript in pdf format is listed with the files at the bottom of this page. The presentation of the authors' names and (or) special characters in the title of the manuscript may differ slightly between what is listed on this page and what is listed in the pdf file of the accepted manuscript; that in the pdf file of the accepted manuscript is what was submitted by the author

CONSIDERATIONS FOR NATURAL MINERAL LICKS USED BY MOOSE IN LAND USE PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Despite an increasing body of knowledge about the predictable use and functional role of naturally occurring mineral licks in the ecology of ungulates such as moose (Alces alces), no documents have been published that discuss the importance of implementing management guidelines aimed to protect these habitat features. We reviewed the literature on the biophysical attributes of mineral lick sites and their use by moose to illustrate the importance of licks and outline criteria that may serve to help in the development of guidelines to protect these land features. We canvassed the provinces and territories of Canada to ascertain whether any regulatory framework for identifying, classifying, and protecting mineral licks existed. Despite appeals for lick protection from several authors, few jurisdictions recognize mineral licks as a special habitat feature and none appear to base their guidelines for protecting licks on ecological principles. We also found no evidence for the existence of a set of standardized guidelines that can be used by planners and managers to ensure the protection of licks. We incorporated ecological and biophysical aspects of mineral licks into a field checklist to identify and classify mineral licks used by moose, and developed a preliminary draft of a management procedure to enable their protection

Year-round patterns of mineral lick use by Moose (Alces americanus), deer, and Elk (Cervus canadensis) in north-central British Columbia

Natural mineral licks are important to the physiological ecology of several species of ungulates in North America and abroad. Information on year-round patterns of mineral lick use by ungulates in Canada is poorly understood. We used camera traps to record patterns of mineral lick use by four ungulate species visiting five naturally occurring mineral licks located within the John Prince Research Forest and surrounding area, near Fort St. James, British Columbia, Canada. Our cameras detected over 1800 mineral lick visits by ungulates from February 2017 to January 2018. Mineral licks were visited year-round, however, most visits were made between May and September during morning hours. We observed variable lick visitations among sites, species, and sex and age classes. The species observed in descending number of lick visits included Moose (Alces americanus), White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Elk (Cervus canadensis), and Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Some licks were visited by all four species, while others were visited by fewer. Female ungulates were recorded at licks more frequently than males or juveniles, which likely reflected the underlying sex and age structure of the population. Elk spent more time at licks than Moose and deer and there was no difference in visit durations between Moose and deer. Most visits were made by single animals, but group visits were also observed. Our findings provide evidence that mineral licks are used year-round by ungulates and appear to be important habitat features on the landscape