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<p><strong>Women and Child Rearing since the Late Nineteenth Century: The Speciality of the Dutch Case</strong><br /><br />In the last two centuries only a few people would contest that Dutch mothers should raise their children. Until the end of the nineteenth century this task often went together with women’s labour. From that point until the 1960s there was a special period in Dutch history, with the great majority of mothers devoting themselves full-time to motherhood and only a very small minority working outside the home. This deviation from a European pattern – almost a Dutch Sonderweg in the first half of the twentieth century – changed into another deviation from the 1970s. Then more and more Dutch mothers started to work outside the home, eventually even in greater numbers than in other European countries, but with the majority of mothers preferring part-time work. As a result, it became a matter of course for Dutch mothers to combine working outside the home with raising their own children.</p><p> </p><p>This article is part of the special issue '<a href="/571/volume/130/issue/2/">De Vrouw 1813-1913</a>'.</p><p> </p><p>Dat Nederlandse vrouwen hun eigen kinderen behoren op te voeden is een opvatting die in de laatste tweehonderd jaar weinig is aangevochten. Tot het einde van de negentiende eeuw ging dat vaak samen met vrouwenarbeid. Toen ontstond een bijzondere Nederlandse situatie waarbij tot in de jaren zestig bijna alle moeders zich volledig aan het moederschap wijdden en nauwelijks buitenshuis werkten. Deze afwijking van het Europese patroon – een Nederlandse Sonderweg – veranderde vanaf de jaren zeventig in haar omkering toen gehuwde vrouwen steeds vaker gingen werken, zelfs vaker dan moeders in andere Europese landen. Ook in een ander opzicht pakten Nederlandse moeders het anders aan dan inandere Europese landen: ze werkten in meerderheid in deeltijd. Tegelijk werken en opvoeden van de eigen kinderen werden vanaf toen een vanzelfsprekendheid.</p><p> </p><p>Dit artikel maakt deel uit van het themanummer '<a href="/571/volume/130/issue/2/">De Vrouw 1813-1913</a>'.</p

Dangerous, Seductive, and Innovative. Visual Sources for the History of Education

This chapter focuses on images as sources for the history of education. Those sources could be scientifically dangerous - do they provide strong enough evidence? -, seductive - with their potential of bringing the researcher almost face to face with people in the past -, and innovative in adding new evidence and new insight to the history of education. After a discussion of the sources’ dangerous and seductive aspects because of its complex relationship with educational reality, we concentrate on seventeenth-century emblematic books with educational and moral messages for parents and adolescents. Some emblems, consisting of text and image, are analyzed and interpreted with classic historic source criticism and with an educational variant of the iconographic method. It could indeed be concluded that also those visual sources could be dangerous and seductive. They, however, may shed new light on important issues in the history of education such as parenting and moral education, and also, if approached by historical source criticism, they do not differ in evidential value and strength from the traditional sources for the history of education and childhood

Looking at the voices of the child. Ideas, challenges, and derailments in the educational space of the past

In this article first the perspectives of children in early modern Europe's educational space will be explored by looking to children through the eyes of artists and by reading the warning against child maltreatment in an influential educational tractate, written by the famous humanist Erasmus. Then we will turn to the nineteenth century paradox: on the one hand a longing after more educational discipline in the school and in residential institutions, and on the other hand more attention for the child's perspective by pedagogues such as Friedrich Fröbel and Ellen Key. Finally it will be asked to which extent warnings by Erasmus and other humanists were taken seriously five hundred years later by looking at recent research on post Second World War child maltreatment and abuse in out-of-home child care.</p

Story telling through fine art:Public histories of childhood and education in exhibitions in the Netherlands and Belgium C. 1980 - C. 2020

Since the 1980s in art exhibitions in the Netherlands and Belgium, public stories were told on the history of childhood and education. They have a large timespan with objects and stories from the Middle Ages until c. 2000. This chapter investigates the relationship between the exhibited art and the exhibition's educational messages. The exhibitions told a story about children and education in the past by showing fine art and sometimes also other objects. Two exhibitions at the start and at the end of the sample based the exhibition design on the view of children as miniature adults. The other exhibitions assume more continuity. They become more didactic in the course of the years with various didactical activities for both children and educators. Past and present were connected in various ways: by taking a timespan until the present, by connecting the seventeenth century with the present, by a complementary didactic program, and by embedding the exhibition in a broader project with Radio and TV broadcasts. All exhibitions show boys and girls of various ages, but differing in social diversity. Two of them focus on a specific social group, respectively the marginal and the upper classes, while the others tell a story of social variety notwithstanding the fact that before the nineteenth century most paintings of children were commissioned by the well-to-do. The relationship between art and reality is differently interpreted. The Child in Our Art and Being Young tell stories about miniature adults. Pride and Joy, while focusing on well-to-do children often seemingly dressed as miniature adults, interprets the portraits as images of children with their own world and stage of development. The exhibitions confirm Frank Simon's view on the role of artists and historians: they should work together to bring us inside the history of childhood and education.</p

Educational Space in Time:Reflections on Limits and Options for Educational Ambitions in History

This article studies educational ambitions in the context of the time-bound limits and possibilities offered by the educational space in order to better understand people’s educational mindsets and behaviour across time. The concepts of educational space and educational ambition, as well as their application across time, are elaborated by distinguishing four indicators that appear to determine the limits and conditions of the educational space in the history of early modern and modern Europe. These are the demographic situation, the socio-economic circumstances, the power balance between private and public, and the time-bound manifestation of the educational mindset. The article also explores how some classic educational concepts—here, the sentiment de l’enfance coined by Philippe Ariès and the concept of “discipline”—could be used in the history of childhood and education by relating them to time-bound limits and positive conditions of the educational space

Teaching Signal Processing to the Medical Profession

Knowledge of signal processing is very important for medical students. A medical signal may be used for monitoring, constructing an image, or for extracting the numerical quantity of a parameter. This information forms a basis for medical decisions. However, the processing of the signal may lead to distortion and an incorrect interpretation. The present article describes an educational practical for first year medical students. It uses the electrocardiogram, which can be obtained easily, as a convenient example of a medical signal. The practical was developed at the VU University Amsterdam and summarizes the elementary concepts of signal processing

The Embodiment of Teaching the Regulation of Emotions in Early Modern Europe

Teaching the regulation of emotions to support parents in educating their children to come of age properly was part of a missionary movement in late sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Europe. This movement was inspired by the belief in the power of education from the northern European Renaissance and by the emphasis on catechism by the Reformation. Its mission resulted in an impressive and varied supply of (emblem) books on family and child-rearing advice. This article focuses on the embodiment of the teaching of the regulation of emotions represented in emblems that use the combined power of images and text. Based on a framework resulting from an analysis of the discourse on the classification and the regulation of emotions in early modern Europe, a sample of seventeenth-century emblems from one of the most popular books of the Dutch seventeenth-century republic, Mirror of the Ancient and Modern Time by Jacob Cats, was analysed by looking at the embodiment of teaching in relationship to the emblem’s text. Most emotions named by philosophers and theologians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were also expressed in those emblems. The emblems carry the message that behavioural mistakes belong to the phase of youth. Teaching children to control their emotions could be done through fun. One of the most popular books in seventeenth-century Holland, many people, both Protestants and Roman Catholics, bought and read Cats’ work, evidence for the conclusion that a majority of Dutch burghers shared the messages in the emblems

Effect of soil moisture condition on the conversion rate of oxamyl.

The decomposition of oxamyl in four soils under moist conditions was measured in incubation experiments at 15 deg C. Half-lives of oxamyl in soils with moisture tensions of approx. -9.8 X 103 Pa were 13 days in a clay loam, 14 days in a loamy sand, 34 days in a peaty sand and 39 days in a humic loamy sand. The rate of oxamyl decomposition in the clay loam decreased with decreasing soil moisture content down to values for below wilting point. Oxamyl decomposition in the humic loamy sand decreased with decreasing soil moisture content, but increased sharply in the very dry range. (Abstract retrieved from CAB Abstracts by CABI’s permission

Entre Rousseau et péché originel. Le modèle néerlandais de la protection de l’enfance au XIXe siècle

Au XIXème siècle, trois images de l'enfance dominent : l'enfant tabula rasa, rendu célèbre par John Locke dans ses Quelques pensées concernant l'éducation, l'enfant innocent qui fait école avec l'Émile de Rousseau, enfin, l'enfant porteur du pécher originel qui constitue l'image dominante de l'enfance dans les cercles protestants de Hollande, Grande-Bretagne, Allemagne et Suisse. Ensemble, ces trois vision de l'enfance ont orienté le mouvement Européen de protection de l'enfance “à risque” au XIXème siècle. Le modèle néerlandais de protection de l'enfance est une partie constitutive du système européen. Dans les années 1830, l'influence hollandaise sur certains pays est forte notamment au travers de deux institutions : les colonies agricoles de la Société de bienfaisance et la prison pour garçon fondé en 1833 à Rotterdam. Toutefois, la fondation en 1851 du “Nederlandsch Mettray”, institution hollandaise modèle pour enfants à risque, est le produit d'influences étrangères, en particulier de la colonie française de Mettray près de Tours et la “Rauhe Haus” allemande près de Hambourg. A la fin du siècle, quand la loi sur l'enfance hollandaise est adoptée, l'influence internationale est encore présente, mais désormais c'est le modèle légal français qui prédomine. La spécificité du système légal hollandais est de privilégier les institutions privée, surtout protestantes et catholiques. Dans la première phase de la protection de l'enfance hollandais, la vision romantique de l'enfance domine, comme le montre l'histoire du “Nederlandsch Mettray”. Durant les années 1880, toutefois, il y a changement. Des méthodes plus disciplinaires sont introduites et, dorénavant, les enfants de Mettray ne seront plus longtemps regardés comme fondamentalement innocents.Between Rousseau and Original Sin. The Dutch model of Child Protection in the Nineteenth Century.                  During the 19th century, three images of childhood are dominant: the child as a tabula rasa, made famous by John Locke in his Some Thoughts Concerning Education, the innocent child, becoming influential by Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Émile, finally the child as the bearer of original sin, this being the dominant image of childhood in protestant circles in the Netherlands, Great-Britain, Germany, and Switzerland. Together, these three images of childhood have dominated the 19th century European movement on the protection of children at risk. The Dutch model of child protection was an integrated part of the European system. In the thirties, there was important Dutch influence on other countries by its agrarian colonies of the Society of Benevolence, as well as by its 1833 founded prison for boys in 1833 in Rotterdam. However, the foundation in 1851 of Nederlandsch Mettray, Dutch model institution for children at risk, was the result of foreign influence, in particular by the French colony of Mettray near Tours and the German Rauhe Haus near Hambourg. At the end of the century, when the Dutch Child Acts were realised, international influence was present again, now mainly from the French legal system. The Dutch legal system was specific in its privileging private institutions, mostly protestant and roman-catholic ones. In the first phase of Dutch child protection, the romantic image of childhood dominated, as can be seen by the history of Nederlandsch Mettray. During the eighties, however, this changed. More disciplinary methods were introduced and, henceforth, the Mettray children at risk were no longer seen as basically innocent