Cetamina: aspectos gerais e relação com a esquizofrenia

Ketamine is an anesthetic agent developed in 1965 by Park & Davis laboratories to be used as a general anesthetic in humans and animals. However, its use became popular among young people and it's frequently available at parties to produce hallucination. In laboratorial researches, this drug has been used as a model of schizophrenia in animals. This work intend to realize a review article about ketamine as an anesthetic and potential schizophrenia model, through a bibliographic research in sites of scientific research, as Pubmed, Medline, and Lilacs and some papers related to this subject. Ketamine administration in humans produces a blockage at glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, antagonizes nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, as well as opioids and monoaminergic systems. The blockage of glutamatergic receptors induces symptoms very similar to the ones presented by schizophrenic patients. Besides this, ketamine administration during synaptogenesis can injury cortical, limbic, thalamic and striatal neurons, producing a dysfunction in glutamatergic neurotransmission, leading to manifestation of psychotic symptoms during adult life. Among these symptoms, we can mention the development of schizophrenia. The drug also produces systemic effects that go from a simple anesthesia, sedation, respiratory depression until to death.A cetamina é uma droga anestésica desenvolvida em 1965 pelos laboratórios norte-americanos Parke & Davis, tendo como objetivo principal sua utilização em anestesias humanas e veterinárias. Entretanto, seu uso tornou-se constante entre os jovens, sendo consumida em festas como um potente alucinógeno. Já quanto a pesquisas laboratoriais, essa droga tem sido utilizada como modelo para induzir esquizofrenia em animais. Com o objetivo de realizar-se um estudo de revisão da cetamina como anestésico e potencial modelo de esquizofrenia, foi feita uma pesquisa bibliográfica na internet, utilizando programas de pesquisa científica (Pubmed, Medline e Lilacs), além de pesquisa em trabalhos relacionados ao assunto. A administração da cetamina no homem promove o bloqueio dos receptores glutamatérgicos ionotrópicos do tipo N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA) e antagoniza os receptores de acetilcolina nicotínicos e muscarínicos, bem como os receptores monoaminérgicos e opióides. O bloqueio dos receptores glutamatérgicos promoverá um quadro sintomático semelhante ao de um paciente esquizofrênico. Além disso, a administração da cetamina durante a sinaptogênese pode lesar neurônios corticais, límbicos, talâmicos e estriatais, promovendo uma disfunção na neurotransmissão glutamatérgica e propiciando a manifestação de sintomas psicóticos na vida adulta. Entre esses sintomas, podemos citar o surgimento da esquizofrenia. Somando-se a isso, a droga proporciona uma série de efeitos sistêmicos, desde uma simples anestesia, passando pela sedação, depressão respiratória e até a morte

Time course of the effects of lipopolysaccharide on prepulse inhibition and brain nitrite content in mice

AbstractThe systemic administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces time-dependent behavioral alterations, which are related to sickness behavior and depression. The time-course effects of LPS on prepulse inhibition (PPI) remain unknown. Furthermore, the time-dependent effects of LPS on central nitrite content had not been investigated. Therefore, we studied alterations induced by single LPS (0.5mg/kg, i.p.) administration to mice on parameters, such as PPI, depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors, working memory, locomotor activity and motor coordination, 1.5 and 24h post-LPS administration. IL-1β and TNFα in the blood and brain as well as brain nitrite levels were evaluated in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus (HC) and striatum (ST). An overall hypolocomotion was observed 1.5h post-LPS, along with depressive-like behaviors and deficits in working memory. Increments in IL-1β content in plasma and PFC, TNFα in plasma and decreases in nitrite levels in the ST and PFC were also verified. Twenty-four hours post-LPS treatment, depressive-like behaviors and working memory deficits persisted, while PPI levels significantly reduced along with increases in IL-1β content in the PFC and a decrease in nitrite levels in the HC, ST and PFC. Our data demonstrate that a delayed increase (i.e., 24h post-LPS) in PPI levels ensue, which may be useful behavioral parameter for LPS-induced depression. A decrease in nitrergic neurotransmission was associated with these behavioral findings

Oxidative Stress and Epilepsy: Literature Review

Backgrounds. The production of free radicals has a role in the regulation of biological function, cellular damage, and the pathogenesis of central nervous system conditions. Epilepsy is a highly prevalent serious brain disorder, and oxidative stress is regarded as a possible mechanism involved in epileptogenesis. Experimental studies suggest that oxidative stress is a contributing factor to the onset and evolution of epilepsy. Objective. A review was conducted to investigate the link between oxidative stress and seizures, and oxidative stress and age as risk factors for epilepsy. The role of oxidative stress in seizure induction and propagation is also discussed. Results/Conclusions. Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are involved in neuronal death and seizures. There is evidence that suggests that antioxidant therapy may reduce lesions induced by oxidative free radicals in some animal seizure models. Studies have demonstrated that mitochondrial dysfunction is associated with chronic oxidative stress and may have an essential role in the epileptogenesis process; however, few studies have shown an established link between oxidative stress, seizures, and age

Oxidative Stress and Epilepsy: Literature Review

Backgrounds. The production of free radicals has a role in the regulation of biological function, cellular damage, and the pathogenesis of central nervous system conditions. Epilepsy is a highly prevalent serious brain disorder, and oxidative stress is regarded as a possible mechanism involved in epileptogenesis. Experimental studies suggest that oxidative stress is a contributing factor to the onset and evolution of epilepsy. Objective. A review was conducted to investigate the link between oxidative stress and seizures, and oxidative stress and age as risk factors for epilepsy. The role of oxidative stress in seizure induction and propagation is also discussed. Results/Conclusions. Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are involved in neuronal death and seizures. There is evidence that suggests that antioxidant therapy may reduce lesions induced by oxidative free radicals in some animal seizure models. Studies have demonstrated that mitochondrial dysfunction is associated with chronic oxidative stress and may have an essential role in the epileptogenesis process; however, few studies have shown an established link between oxidative stress, seizures, and age

A proline derivative-enriched fraction from Sideroxylon obtusifolium protects against intracerebroventricular pilocarpine-induced injury associated with status epilepticus in mice

The N-methyl-(2S,4R)-trans-4-hydroxy-L-proline-enriched fraction (NMP) from Sideroxylon obtusifolium was evaluated as a neuroprotective agent in the intracerebroventricular (icv) pilocarpine (Pilo) model. To this aim, male mice were subdivided into sham (SO, vehicle), Pilo (300 μg/1 μL icv, followed by the vehicle per os, po) and NMP-treated groups (Pilo 300 μg/1 μL icv, followed by 100 or 200 mg/kg po). The treatments started one day after the Pilo injection and continued for 15 days. The effects of NMP were assessed by characterizing the preservation of cognitive function in both the Y-maze and object recognition tests. The hippocampal cell viability was evaluated by Nissl staining. Additional markers of damage were studied—the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and the ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1) expression using, respectively, immunofluorescence and western blot analyses. We also performed molecular docking experiments revealing that NMP binds to the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transporter 1 (GAT1). GAT1 expression in the hippocampus was also characterized. Pilo induced cognitive deficits, cell damage, increased GFAP, Iba-1, and GAT1 expression in the hippocampus. These alterations were prevented, especially by the higher NMP dose. These data highlight NMP as a promising candidate for the protection of the hippocampus, as shown by the icv Pilo model