Landwirtschaft im Spannungsfeld zwischen Natürlichkeit und Künstlichkeit

This paper seeks to distil the underlying tensions between naturalness and artificiality in the field of agriculture. In this context, the concept of naturalness is often understood and employed in a normative sense. Yet while biotechnological agriculture is often seen as artificial and organic farming is perceived as natural, both practices can lead to ethically questionable consequences: naturalness is not in itself morally good. Instead, agricultural use should be judged according to the extent to which the spatiotemporal order of nature is disturbed in ways beneficial to mankind. In order to establish sustainable agriculture as a desirable goal in this sense, one may refer to God's biblical instruction in the Book of Genesis: God, who determines the framework for the use of nature created by Him, did not give the reign of the earth into the hands of man so that he may subdue (Gen 1:28) by exploiting it, but in order for him to preserve and guard it (Gen 2:15

Ethical Discourse on the Use of Genetically Modified Crops: A Review of Academic Publications in the Fields of Ecology and Environmental Ethics

The use of genetically modified plants in agriculture (GM crops) is controversially discussed in academic publications. Important issues are whether the release of GM crops is beneficial or harmful for the environment and therefore acceptable, and whether the modification of plants is ethically permissible per se. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the moral reasoning on the use of GM crops expressed in academic publications from 1975 to 2008. Environmental ethical aspects in the publications were investigated. Overall, 113 articles from 15 ecology, environmental ethics, and multidisciplinary science journals were systematically reviewed. Three types of moral concerns were used to structure the normative statements, moral notions, and moral issues found in the articles: concerns addressing consequences of the use of GM crops, concerns addressing the act (the technique itself), and concerns addressing the virtues of an actor. Articles addressing consequences (84%) dealt with general ecological and risk concerns or discussed specific ecological issues about the use of GM crops. Articles addressing the act (57%) dealt with the value of naturalness, the value of biotic entities, and conceptual reductionism, whereas articles addressing the actor (43%) dealt with virtues related to the handling of risks and the application of GM crops. The results of this study may help to structure the academic debate and contribute to a better understanding of moral concerns that are associated with the key aspects of the ethical theories of consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethic

Offshore-Windkraftnutzung in der Deutschen Bucht: was denken die Akteure?

Das Thema der Windenergie wird seit vielen Jahren in der deutschen Öffentlichkeit kontrovers diskutiert. Mit der Option, auch auf dem Meer, und hier insbesondere in der Deutschen Bucht, die Windkraft nutzen zu wollen, hat der öffentliche Diskurs eine neue Dimension erreicht. Es werden klima- und energiepolitische Gründe vorgebracht, die für den Bau von Offshore-Windfarmen in der Nordsee sprechen. Kritiker hingegen sehen das labile Ökosystem der Deutschen Bucht bedroht und verweisen ferner auf mögliche negative Folgen für den Fremdenverkehr, die Schifffahrt und die Fischerei. Beteiligt am öffentlichen Diskurs um das Für und Wider der Offshore-Windkraftnutzung, der mit wachsender Intensität nicht nur in den regionalen Medien der Nordseeregion wiedergegeben wird, sind unterschiedliche Akteure in Bund, Ländern und Gemeinden aus Politik (Regierungen, Parteien, Behörden), Wirtschaft (Arbeitgeber- und Arbeitnehmerverbände, Energieunternehmen, Fischereiwirtschaft, Maritime Wirtschaft, Fremdenverkehrswirtschaft) und Gesellschaft (Naturschutzverbände, organisierte Windkraftgegner). Eine Untersuchung des Diskurses um die Offshore-Windkraft zeigt, dass sich ein Konflikt um die Belange des Natur- und Landschaftsschutzes gegenüber den Belangen des Umwelt- und Klimaschutzes herausgebildet hat. Während auf politischer Ebene in Bund und Ländern sowie von vielen Wirtschaftsverbänden die klimapolitischen Vorteile der marinen Windkraftnutzung betont werden, wird Kritik vor allem durch die Gemeinden der Nordseeregion sowie durch Tourismus-, Fischerei- und Naturschutzverbände geäußert. Dabei scheint die öffentliche Akzeptanz der geplanten Offshore-Windparks mit zunehmender Küstenentfernung und außerhalb ökologisch sensibler Gebiete zu steigen. (Autorenreferat)There has been a controversial debate raging in the German public sphere for years on the issue of wind power. The public forum has reached a new high-water mark with the option of additionally using wind power on the sea (specifically in the German Bay) citing reasons of climate and energy policy for building offshore wind farms in the North Sea. Critics see the unstable ecological system of the German Bay threatened and point to potential negative consequences for tourism, shipping and fishing. There is a whole series of policymaking actors in the federal and state governments including municipalities (the governments themselves, political parties and official agencies), from the private economy (employers' and employees' associations, power utilities, fishing, maritime and tourism sectors) and from society at large (nature protection organisations and organised opponents of wind power). They are engaged in a public debate on whether offshore wind power should be used or not with the regional media of the North Sea region reporting on it with growing intensity. A study of this debate on using offshore wind power shows that the concerns of nature and landscape conservation are diametrically opposed to the concerns of environmental and climate protection. Policymakers in the federal and state governments including an array of economic associations accentuate the benefits of marine wind power utilisation while the municipalities of the North Sea region and the tourism, fishing and nature protection associations voice criticism. The further windfarms are away from the coast and outside of ecologically sensitive areas, the greater is public acceptance for the planned offshore wind parks. (author's abstract

Die ökologische Debatte über gentechnisch veränderte Pflanzen in der Schweizer Landwirtschaft

Dem Einsatz gentechnisch veränderter Pflanzen in der Landwirtschaft, der sogenannten Grünen Gentechnik, wird in der Schweizer Öffentlichkeit mit grosser Skepsis begegnet. Im Vordergrund stehen ökologische Bedenken, dass sich beispielsweise gentechnisch veränderte Pflanzen mit verwandten Wildarten auskreuzen und in der Umwelt ausbreiten oder sich unerwartete Effekte auf Nichtziel-Organismen einstellen können. Insbesondere negative Aus- wirkungen auf die natürliche Biodiversität und die Agrobiodiversität werden von der Schweizer Öffentlichkeit befürchtet. Angesichts der möglichen Risiken wird ein sorgfältiger Umgang mit dieser neuen Technologie angemahnt. Neben Risikobedenken gibt es in der ökologischen Debatte in der Schweiz auch grundsätzliche Vorbehalte gegenüber der Gentechnik, die als ein unnatürlicher Eingriff oder eine Verletzung der «Würde der Pflanze» angesehen wird. Um die facettenreiche Debatte in der Schweiz zur Grünen Gentechnik besser zu verstehen, lohnt sich ein genauerer Blick auf die verschiedenen Argumentationstypen, die sich beobachten lassen. Diese können drei wichtigen Theorien der Moralphilosophie zugeordnet werden: dem Konsequentialismus, der Deontologie und der Tugendethik

Positionen in der umweltgenetischen Debatte über transgene Nutzpflanzen

The ongoing debate on the use of transgenic crops in agriculture and its possible ecological consequences is well into its third decade. Within this debate, three moral positions can be identified that rest upon different theories of normative ethics: a consequentialist, a deontological and a virtue ethical position. Although the debate cannot be fully resolved, a closer examination of the functions of the different moral positions is warranted in order to find constructive approaches for managing the controversy. Such an examination could contribute to a more objective debate on the use of transgenic crops. As a first step to achieve this goal the author develops criteria for ethical decision-making that integrate the different moral positions

Societal impact of synthetic biology: responsible research and innovation (RRI)

Synthetic biology is an emerging field at the interface between biology and engineering, which has generated many expectations for beneficial biomedical and biotechnological applications. At the same time, however, it has also raised concerns about risks or the aim of producing new forms of living organisms. Researchers from different disciplines as well as policymakers and the general public have expressed the need for a form of technology assessment that not only deals with technical aspects, but also includes societal and ethical issues. A recent and very influential model of technology assessment that tries to implement these aims is known as RRI (Responsible Research and Innovation). In this paper, we introduce this model and its historical precursor strategies. Based on the societal and ethical issues which are presented in the current literature, we discuss challenges and opportunities of applying the RRI model for the assessment of synthetic biology

Landwirtschaft im Spannungsfeld zwischen Natürlichkeit und Künstlichkeit

This paper seeks to distil the underlying tensions between naturalness and artificiality in the field of agriculture. In this context, the concept of naturalness is often understood and employed in a normative sense. Yet while biotechnological agriculture is often seen as artificial and organic farming is perceived as natural, both practices can lead to ethically questionable consequences: naturalness is not in itself morally good. Instead, agricultural use should be judged according to the extent to which the spatiotemporal order of nature is disturbed in ways beneficial to mankind. In order to establish sustainable agriculture as a desirable goal in this sense, one may refer to God's biblical instruction in the Book of Genesis: God, who determines the framework for the use of nature created by Him, did not give the reign of the earth into the hands of man so that he may subdue (Gen 1:28) by exploiting it, but in order for him to preserve and guard it (Gen 2:15

Different understandings of life as an opportunity to enrich the debate about synthetic biology

Comments and reports on synthetic biology often focus on the idea that this field may lead to synthetic life or life forms. Such claims attract general attention because “life” is a basic concept that is understood, interpreted and explained in multiple ways. While these different understandings of life may influence the ethical assessment of synthetic biology by experts and the public, this field might, in turn, influence how academics or the public view life. We suggest in this paper that synthetic biology provides an opportunity to discuss and compare different views and explanations of the world, starting from the concept of life. We argue that a narrow focus on just one interpretation of this concept may be harmful and that people will benefit from being aware of a diversity of understandings of life because they provide answers to different questions. Moreover, the confrontation among views is important for the development of reasoning abilities, and a nuanced view on our world will be useful for integrating scientific findings and their implications into a wider context. At the same time, we should not only consider other understandings of life for our own benefit but also because a moral attitude of respect for and toleration toward others implies permission to express and maintain their views. For these reasons, we suggest that a diversity of views on life should be included in public education and in public engagement events on synthetic biology. Moreover, they should be on the research agenda of technology assessment studies within the ELSA or RRI frameworks

Exploring how expectations of the future energy system shape individuals’ energy political attitudes

Energy scenarios and forecasts – e.g. of prices, demand, or grid capacities – are the basis for key decisions by authorities, policy, makers, electricity producers and grid operators and shape the development of the energy system. But also when it comes to individuals, expectations about the future development of the energy system can also play a key role in shaping their energy political attitudes, e.g. by constraining what goals are thought to be realistic and what projects are thought to be feasible. While there is a considerable body of research that analyses contextual (e.g. benefits, risks, fairness and spatial proximity) and psychological factors (e.g. place-attachment, trust and individual values) that shape energy political attitudes of the broad public, the role of individual expectations has yet not been addressed properly. In order to explore how expectation of the future energy system shape individuals’ energy political attitudes, a survey (n=1000) in Switzerland was conducted, which is representative of – inter alia – gender, age, area of residence. It included a set of ten scaled items that measure how participant imagine energy system in 2030. These include, for example, prices, share of renewables and energy security. Using these factors to cluster participants, three distinct groups concerning their view of the Swiss electricity future could be identified. More importantly, a subsequent analysis of variance suggests that these expectations may indeed be a strong predictor of energy political attitudes. For the current energy debate in Switzerland and worldwide this study adds to the understanding of individuals’ political behaviour towards energy issues, in particular by offering an explanation for individuals’ attitudes towards energy political decisions that goes beyond the factors usually considered