Complex Fluids and Hydraulic Fracturing

Nearly 70 years old, hydraulic fracturing is a core technique for stimulating hydrocarbon production in a majority of oil and gas reservoirs. Complex fluids are implemented in nearly every step of the fracturing process, most significantly to generate and sustain fractures and transport and distribute proppant particles during and following fluid injection. An extremely wide range of complex fluids are used: naturally occurring polysaccharide and synthetic polymer solutions, aqueous physical and chemical gels, organic gels, micellar surfactant solutions, emulsions, and foams. These fluids are loaded over a wide range of concentrations with particles of varying sizes and aspect ratios and are subjected to extreme mechanical and environmental conditions. We describe the settings of hydraulic fracturing (framed by geology), fracturing mechanics and physics, and the critical role that non-Newtonian fluid dynamics and complex fluids play in the hydraulic fracturing process

The role of rock joint frictional strength in the containment of fracture propagation

The fracturing phenomenon within the reservoir environment is a complex process that is controlled by several factors and may occur either naturally or by artificial drivers. Even when deliberately induced, the fracturing behaviour is greatly influenced by the subsurface architecture and existing features. The presence of discontinuities such as joints, artificial and naturally occurring faults and interfaces between rock layers and microfractures plays an important role in the fracturing process and has been known to significantly alter the course of fracture growth. In this paper, an important property (joint friction) that governs the shear behaviour of discontinuities is considered. The applied numerical procedure entails the implementation of the discrete element method to enable a more dynamic monitoring of the fracturing process, where the joint frictional property is considered in isolation. Whereas fracture propagation is constrained by joints of low frictional resistance, in non-frictional joints, the unrestricted sliding of the joint plane increases the tendency for reinitiation and proliferation of fractures at other locations. The ability of a frictional joint to suppress fracture growth decreases as the frictional resistance increases; however, this phenomenon exacerbates the influence of other factors including in situ stresses and overburden conditions. The effect of the joint frictional property is not limited to the strength of rock formations; it also impacts on fracturing processes, which could be particularly evident in jointed rock masses or formations with prominent faults and/or discontinuities

Scientific applications of downhole measurements in the ocean basins

The well logging activity of the Ocean Drilling Programme, which deploys the most technically advanced suite of downhole measurements available for routine use, is providing new opportunities for advancement in marine geoscience. Particular examples are cited of the application of wireline data to problems associated with global environmental changes, crust/ mantle interactions, crustal fluid circulation in the context of a global geochemical budget, lithospheric stress and deformation, and evolutionary processes in oceanic communities. Further technological developments will expand the scientific role of downhole measurements still further, especially in terms of the integration of geophysical data at different scales of measurement, and the interpretation of these data in accordance with; global scientific themes

An Investigation of Hydraulic Fracturing Initiation and Near-Wellbore Propagation from Perforated Boreholes in Tight Formations

In this study, hydraulic fracturing tests were conducted on 10 and 15 cm synthetically manufactured cubic tight mortar samples. The use of cube samples allowed application of three independent stresses to mimic real far field stress conditions. A true triaxial stress cell was used for this purpose. The lab test parameters were scaled to simulate the operations at field scale. The hole and perforations were made into the sample after casting and curing were completed. Various scenarios of vertical and horizontal wells and in situ stress regimes were modeled. These factors are believed to play a significant role in fracture initiation and near-wellbore propagation behavior; however, they are not independent parameters, hence should be analyzed simultaneously. In addition to experimental studies, analytical solutions were developed to simulate the mechanism of fracture initiation in perforated boreholes in tight formations. Good agreements were observed between the experimental and analytical results. The results of this study showed that a lower initiation pressure is observed when the minimum stress component is perpendicular to the axis of the perforations. It was also seen that, even when the cement sheath behind the casing fails, the orientation of the perforations may affect the initiation of the induced fracture noticeably. Furthermore, it was found that stress anisotropy influences the fracturing mechanism in a perforated borehole, and affects the geometry of the initiated near-wellbore fracture