Perfectionism in employees: Work engagement, workaholism, and burnout

Perfectionism is a prevalent personality disposition that may affect all domains of life. Work is an important domain of life for many people. Yet, research on perfectionism at work and how perfectionism affects employees’ health and well-being is still limited. Research, however, has investigated perfectionism’s relationships with three key aspects of peoples’ working lives that are closely associated with employees’ health and well-being: work engagement, workaholism, and job burnout. Differentiating between perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns (Stoeber & Otto, 2006), the present chapter presents an overview of the relevant research findings. Taken together, the findings suggest that (a) perfectionistic strivings show positive relationships with work engagement whereas perfectionistic concerns show no relationships or negative relationships, (b) perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns both show positive relationships with workaholism, and (c) perfectionistic strivings show negative relationships with burnout whereas perfectionistic concerns show positive relationships. To explain the opposite relationships that perfectionistic strivings and concerns show with burnout, two hypothetical models are presented. In Model 1, autonomous versus controlled motivation explain the opposite relationships of perfectionistic strivings and concerns with burnout. In Model 2, adaptive versus maladaptive coping explain the relationships. The chapter concludes with directions for future research on perfectionism, work engagement, workaholism, and job burnout pointing out the importance of longitudinal studies and intervention studies

Perfectionism and school engagement: A three-wave longitudinal study

Although perfectionism is a personality disposition that plays an important role in educational contexts, research on perfectionism and school engagement is limited. School engagement is a key process in predicting educational outcomes in students. Consequently, it is important to know how perfectionism relates to school engagement and whether perfectionism predicts relative changes in school engagement over time. Using a sample of 486 students from 6th-12th grade (54% female) and employing a longitudinal design with three waves spaced 4-5 months apart, the present study investigated whether perfectionism (perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns) predicted relative changes in students’ school engagement (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement). Results showed that both perfectionistic strivings and concerns were related to school engagement, but only perfectionistic strivings predicted relative increases in school engagement. Implications for the understanding of how perfectionistic strivings contribute to school students’ engagement are discussed

Perfectionistic concerns predict increases in adolescents’ anxiety symptoms: A three-wave longitudinal study

Background and Objectives: Although perfectionism has been proposed to be a risk factor for the development of anxiety, research on perfectionism and anxiety symptoms in adolescents is scarce and inconclusive. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the two higher-order dimensions of perfectionism—perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—predict the development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms. An additional aim of the present study was to examine potential reciprocal effects of anxiety symptoms predicting increases in perfectionism. Design: The study used a longitudinal design with three waves spaced 4-5 months apart. Methods: A non-clinical sample of 489 adolescents aged 12-19 years completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire. Results: As expected, results showed a positive effect from perfectionistic concerns to anxiety symptoms, but the effect was restricted to middle-to-late adolescents (16-19 years old): Perfectionistic concerns predicted longitudinal increases in adolescents’ anxiety symptoms whereas perfectionistic strivings did not. Furthermore, anxiety symptoms did not predict increases in perfectionism. Conclusions: Implications for the understanding of the relationship between perfectionism and anxiety symptoms are discussed

Perfectionism: A motivational perspective

The chapter presents a review of the research literature examining perfectionism from a motivational perspective. Taking the two-factor theory of perfectionism—differentiating the two higher-order dimensions of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns—as a basis, we present analyses of the differential relationships that the two dimensions show with key motivational constructs focusing on achievement motivation and self-determination theory. As regards achievement motivation, we examine the relationships with achievement motives (hope of success and fear of failure) and achievement goals (task and ego goals, 2 × 2 and 3 × 2 achievement goals). As regards self-determination theory, we examine the relationships with autonomous and controlled motivation and with the different regulatory styles associated with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Based on the findings of our review, we propose that the differential motivational qualities of perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns are important to understand why perfectionism is a “double-edged sword” that may energize or paralyze people, motivating some perfectionists to engage and others to disengage. We conclude that perfectionism research may profit from seeing perfectionism from a motivational perspective, perhaps even regard perfectionism as a motive disposition (need for perfection) whereby perfectionistic strivings represent the approach-oriented and autonomous aspects, and perfectionistic concerns the avoidance-oriented and controlled aspects

The very best of me: Longitudinal associations of perfectionism and identity processes in adolescence

Personality and identity formation are intricately linked in adolescent development. The personality disposition of perfectionism has been associated with identity processes, but their longitudinal interplay in adolescence has not yet been investigated. This 4-wave study, with 5- to 6-month intervals between each wave (N = 744 Caucasian adolescents, M[age] = 15.2 years, 55% girls), examined associations between perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed) and identity processes in the domain of future plans. Self-oriented perfectionism predicted increases in commitment making, identification with commitment, and exploration in depth. Socially prescribed perfectionism showed bidirectional positive relations with ruminative exploration. Exploration in depth predicted increases in socially prescribed perfectionism. Findings suggest that perfectionism is an important personality disposition in adolescent identity formation unfolding over time

Becoming a perfectionistic adolescent: Perceived parental behaviors involved in developmental trajectories of perfectionism

Perfectionism is a pervasive and prevalent personality disposition with high implications for psychological maladjustment. Adolescence represents a particularly relevant period for the development of perfectionism, and perceived parental behaviors have been shown to play an important part. Yet, so far only few longitudinal studies have investigated the role of risk and protective parental behaviors in the development of perfectionism in adolescents. Examining a sample of 744 adolescents (Mage = 15.2 years), the present study investigated developmental trajectories of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism over 4 waves spaced 5-6 months apart. Results of growth mixture modeling showed that self-oriented perfectionism followed 3 developmental trajectories (low and decreasing; medium and decreasing; high and stable) as did socially prescribed perfectionism (low and stable; medium and increasing; high and stable). Other-oriented perfectionism showed 4 developmental trajectories (low and decreasing; low and stable; high and stable; high and increasing). Significant differences were observed between groups regarding all investigated perceived parental behaviors (psychological control, behavioral control, responsiveness, and autonomy support). Similarities and differences between the development of each form of perfectionism and the role of each parental behavior as well as implications of these findings for the understanding of the development of perfectionism in adolescence are discussed

The Clinical Perfectionism Questionnaire: Further evidence for two factors capturing perfectionistic strivings and concerns

The construct of clinical perfectionism, conceptualized as a one-dimensional construct (Shafran, Cooper, & Fairburn, 2003), has drawn considerable debate because of the associated critique of multidimensional perfectionism’s relevance for clinical theory and research. Hence Dickie, Surgenor, Wilson, and McDowall’s (2012) finding that the Clinical Perfectionism Questionnaire (CPQ), designed to measure clinical perfectionism, was two-factorial and thus multidimensional makes an important contribution to the debate. The present study aimed to replicate Dickie et al.’s finding examining the CPQ’s factorial structure in 316 university students. In addition, the study examined the CPQ’s convergent correlations with dispositional perfectionism, perfectionism cognitions, and perfectionistic self-presentation. CPQ total scores showed large-sized positive correlations with dispositional perfectionism and perfectionism cognitions demonstrating convergent validity. However, the study confirmed that the CPQ was two-factorial with Factor 1 mainly capturing perfectionistic strivings and Factor 2 mainly capturing perfectionistic concerns, thus questioning the CPQ’s construct validity. Together with Dickie et al.’s findings, the present study’s findings suggest that--if the CPQ is a valid measure of clinical perfectionism as conceptualized by Shafran et al. (2003)--the construct of clinical perfectionism and its dimensionality need to be reconsidered

Positive and negative affect in adolescents: An investigation of the 2 x 2 model of perfectionism

Research on the 2 x 2 model of perfectionism and affect is still limited. Following a variable-centered approach, the present study investigated in a sample of 576 adolescents whether self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) predicted positive and negative affect, comparing four subtypes of perfectionism: pure SOP, pure SPP, mixed perfectionism, and non-perfectionism. Regarding positive affect, all four subtypes differed: Pure SOP predicted the highest levels of positive affect followed by mixed perfectionism, non-perfectionism, and pure SPP. Regarding negative affect, pure SPP and mixed perfectionism predicted higher levels of negative affect than pure SOP and non-perfectionism, but pure SPP did not differ from mixed perfectionism (and pure SOP not from non-perfectionism). Implications of the findings for the 2 x 2 model are discussed

Perfectionism

Perfectionism has been associated with higher levels of psychological maladjustment and disorder in adolescence and lower levels of subjective well-being and psychological adjustment. Perfectionism, however, is a multidimensional disposition, and not all dimensions of perfectionism are necessarily unhealthy or maladaptive. This entry presents an overview about perfectionism in adolescence and the main dimensions of perfectionism: perfectionistic strivings and perfectionistic concerns. It shows how the two dimensions are related to subjective well-being, psychological adjustment and maladjustment, and disorder. Moreover, it informs on how perfectionism can be measured and what factors influence the development of perfectionism in children and adolescents. Finally, the entry will discuss what is still unknown about perfectionism and why the notion that perfectionism can be healthy or adaptive is controversially debated