Seed survival and dispersal of an endemic Atlantic forest palm: the combined effects of defaunation and forest fragmentation

About 45 palm species occur in the Atlantic forest of Brazil, and most of them are affected by loss of seed dispersers resulting from forest fragmentation and hunting. Here we report the effects of habitat loss and defaunation on the seed dispersal system of an endemic palm, Astrocaryum aculeatissimum. We evaluated seed removal, insect and rodent seed predation, and scatter-hoarding in nine sites, ranging from 19 ha to 79 000 ha. We report the seedling, juvenile and adult palm densities in this range of sites. Endocarps remaining beneath the parent palm had a higher probability of being preyed upon by insects in small, mostly fragmented and more defaunated sites. The frequency of successful seed removal, scatter-hoarding and consumption by rodents increased in the larger, less defaunated sites. Successful removal and dispersal collapsed in small (< 1000 ha), highly defaunated sites and frequently resulted in low densities of both seedlings and juveniles. Our results indicate that a large fraction of Atlantic forest palms that rely on scatter-hoarding rodents may become regionally extinct due to forest fragmentation and defau- nation. Current management practices including palm extraction and hunting pressure have a lasting effect on Atlantic forest palm regeneration by severely limiting successful recruitment of prereproductive individualsPeer reviewe

Living in the Land of Ghosts: Fruit Traits and the Importance of Large Mammals as Seed Dispersers in the Pantanal, Brazil

Peer reviewe

Seed Survival And Dispersal Of An Endemic Atlantic Forest Palm: The Combined Effects Of Defaunation And Forest Fragmentation

About 45 palm species occur in the Atlantic forest of Brazil, and most of them are affected by loss of seed dispersers resulting from forest fragmentation and hunting. Here we report the effects of habitat loss and defaunation on the seed dispersal system of an endemic palm, Astrocaryum aculeatissimum. We evaluated seed removal, insect and rodent seed predation, and scatter-hoarding in nine sites, ranging from 19 ha to 79 000 ha. We report the seedling, juvenile and adult palm densities in this range of sites. Endocarps remaining beneath the parent palm had a higher probability of being preyed upon by insects in small, mostly fragmented and more defaunated sites. The frequency of successful seed removal, scatter-hoarding and consumption by rodents increased in the larger, less defaunated sites. Successful removal and dispersal collapsed in small (< 1000 ha), highly defaunated sites and frequently resulted in low densities of both seedlings and juveniles. Our results indicate that a large fraction of Atlantic forest palms that rely on scatter-hoarding rodents may become regionally extinct due to forest fragmentation and defaunation. Current management practices including palm extraction and hunting pressure have a lasting effect on Atlantic forest palm regeneration by severely limiting successful recruitment of prereproductive individuals. © 2006 The Linnean Society of London.1511141149Asquith N, M., Terborgh, J., Arnold, A.E., Riveros, C.M., The fruits the agouti ate: Hymenaea courbaril seed fate when its disperser is absent (1999) Journal of Tropical Ecology, 15, pp. 229-235Benitez-Malvido J, Impact of forest fragmentation on seedling abundance in a tropical rain forest (1998) Conservation Biology, 12, pp. 380-389Brewer S, W., Predation and dispersal of large and small seeds of a tropical palm (2001) Oikos, 92, pp. 245-255Brewer S, W., Rejmanek, M., Small rodents as significant dispersers of tree seeds in a Neotropical forest (1999) Journal of Vegetation Science, 10, pp. 165-174Bruna E, M., Are plant populations in fragmented habitats recruitment limited? Tests with an Amazonian herb (2003) Ecology, 84, pp. 932-947Carvalho F, A., (2005)Chapman C, A., Chapman, L.J., Survival without dispersers: Seedling recruitment under parents (1995) Conservation Biology, 9, pp. 675-678Chapman C, A., Onderdonk, D.A., Forests without primates: Primate/plant codependency (1998) American Journal of Primatology, 45, pp. 127-141Charles-Dominique P, Chave, J., Dubois, M.A., De Granville, J.J., Riera, B., Vezzoli, C., Colonization front of the understorey palm Astrocaryum sciophilum in a pristine rain forest of French Guiana (2003) Global Ecology and Biogeography, 12, pp. 237-248Chiarello A, G., Effects of fragmentation of the Atlantic forest on mammal communities in south-eastern Brazil (1999) Biological Conservation, 89, pp. 71-82Cordeiro N, J., Howe, H.F., Low recruitment of trees dispersed by animals in African forest fragments (2001) Conservation Biology, 15, pp. 1733-1741Cordeiro N, J., Howe, H.F., Forest fragmentation severs mutualism between seed dispersers and an endemic African tree (2003) Proceedings of the Natural Academy of Science, USA, 100, pp. 14052-14056Cullen L, Bodmer, R.E., Valladares-Pádua, C., Effects of hunting in habitat fragments of the Atlantic forest, Brazil (2000) Biological Conservation, 95, pp. 49-56Donatti C, I., (2004)Fa J, E., Peres, C.A., Meeuwig, J., Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forests: An intercontinental comparison (2002) Conservation Biology, 16, pp. 232-237Fleury M, Galetti, M., Effects of microhabitat on palm seed predation in two forest fragments in southeast Brazil (2004) Acta Oecologica, 26, pp. 179-184Forget P, M., Scatterhoarding of Astrocaryum paramaca by Proechimys in French Guiana: Comparison with Myoprocta exilis (1991) Tropical Ecology, 32, pp. 155-167Forget P, M., Milleron, T., Evidence for secondary seed dispersal by rodents in Panama (1991) Oecologia, 87, pp. 596-599Fragoso M, V.J., Huffman, J.M., Seed-dispersal and seedling recruitment patterns by the last Neotropical megafaunal element in Amazonia, the tapir (2000) Journal of Tropical Ecology, 16, pp. 369-385Fragoso M, V.J., Silvius, K.M., Correa, J.A., Long-distance seed dispersal by tapirs increases seed survival and aggregates tropical trees (2003) Ecology, 84, pp. 1998-2006Galetti M, Aleixo, A., Effects of palm heart harvesting on avian frugivores in the Atlantic rain forest of Brazil (1998) Journal of Applied Ecology, 35, pp. 286-293Galetti M, Fernandez, J.C., Palm heart harvesting in the Brazilian Atlantic forest: Changes in industry structure and the illegal trade (1998) Journal of Applied Ecology, 35, pp. 294-301Galetti M, Keuroghlian, A., Hanada, L., Morato, M.I., Frugivory and seed dispersal by the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) in southeast Brazil (2001) Biotropica, 33, pp. 723-726Galetti M, Paschoal, M., Pedroni, F., Predation on palm nuts (Syagrus romanzoffiana) by squirrels (Sciurus ingrami) in south-east Brazil (1992) Journal of Tropical Ecology, 8, pp. 121-123Galetti M, Ziparro, V.B., Morelatto, L.P.C., Fruiting phenology and frugivory on the palm Euterpe edulis in a lowland Atlantic Forest of Brazil (1999) Ecotropica, 5, pp. 115-122Guimarães P, R., Lopes, P.F.M., Lyra, M.L., Muriel, A.P., Fleshy pulp enhances the location of Syagrus romanzoffiana (Arecaceae) fruits by seed-dispersing rodents in an Atlantic forest in south-eastern Brazil (2005) Journal of Tropical Ecology, 21, pp. 109-112Harrington G, N., Irvine, A.K., Crome, F.H.J., Moore, L.A., Regeneration of large-seeded trees in Australian rainforests fragments: A study of higher order interactions (1997) Tropical Forest Remnants: Ecology, Management, and Conservation of Fragmented Communities, pp. 292-303. , In*Laurance W.L. *Bierregaard R.O. University of Chicago Press Chicago edsHenderson A, Galeano, G., Bernal, R., (1995) Field Guide to the Palms of the Americas, , Princeton University Press Princeton, NJHerrera C, M., Jordano, P., López Soria, L., Amat, J.A., Recruitment of a mast-fruiting, bird-dispersed tree: Bridging frugivore activity and seedling establishment (1994) Ecological Monographs, 64, pp. 315-344Hoch G, A., Adler, G.H., Removal of black palm (Astrocaryum standleyanum) seeds by spiny rats (Proechimys semispinosus) (1997) Journal of Tropical Ecology, 13, pp. 51-58Kiltie R, A., Distribution of palm fruits on a rain forest floor: Why white-lipped peccaries forage near objects (1981) Biotropica, 13, pp. 141-145Laurance W, F., Lovejoy, T.E., Vasconcelos, H.L., Bruna, E.M., Didham, R.K., Stouffer, P.C., Gascon, C., Sampaio, E., Ecosystem decay of Amazonian forest fragments: A 22-year investigation (2002) Conservation Biology, 16, pp. 605-618Lorenzi H, Sousa, H.M., Costa, J.T.M., Cerqueira, L.S.C., Ferreira, E., (2004) Palmeiras Brasileiras: Nativas e Exóticas Cultivadas, , Instituto Plantarum. Nova Odessa, SPMyers N, Mittermeier, R.A., Fonseca, G.A.B., Kent, J., Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities (2000) Nature, 403, pp. 853-858Oliveira-Filho A, Fontes, M.A.L., Patterns of floristic differentiation among Atlantic forests in south-eastern Brazil, and the influence of climate (2000) Biotropica, 32, pp. 793-810Peres C, A., Synergistic effects of subsistence hunting and habitat fragmentation on Amazonian forest vertebrates (2001) Conservation Biology, 15, pp. 1490-1505Peres C, A., Baider, C., Seed dispersal, spatial distribution and population structure of Brazil nut trees (Bertholletia excelsa) in southeastern Amazonia (1997) Journal of Tropical Ecology, 13, pp. 595-616Pimentel D, S., Tabarelli, M., Seed dispersal of the palm Attalea oleifera in a remnant of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (2004) Biotropica, 36, pp. 74-84(2003) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, , R Development Core Team. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. ViennaSão Bernardo, C.S., Galetti, M., Densidade e tamanho populacional de primatas em um fragmento florestal no sudeste do Brasil (2004) Revista Brasileira de Zoologia, 21, pp. 827-832Scariot A, Forest fragmentation effects on palm diversity in central Amazonia (1999) Journal of Ecology, 87, pp. 66-76Silman M, R., Terborgh, J., Kiltie, R.A., Population regulation of a dominant rain forest tree by a major seed predator (2003) Ecology, 84, pp. 431-438Silva M, G., Tabarelli, M., Seed dispersal, plant recruitment and spatial distribution of Bactris acanthocarpa Martius (Arecaceae) in a remnant of Atlantic forest in northeast Brazil (2001) Acta Oecologica, 22, pp. 259-268Smythe N, Seed survival in the palm Astrocaryum standleyanum, evidence for dependence upon its seed dispersers (1989) Biotropica, 21, pp. 50-56(1998) Atlas Da Evolução Dos Remanescentes Florestais e Ecossistemas Associados No Domínio Da Mata Atlântica No Período 1990-95, , SOS Mata Atlântica, INPE. INPE. São PauloSouza A, F., Martins, F.R., Population structure and dynamics of a neotropical palm in fire-impacted fragments of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (2004) Biodiversity and Conservation, 13, pp. 1611-1632Tabarelli M, Silva, M.J.C., Gascon, C., Forest fragmentation, synergisms and the impoverishment of neotropical forests (2004) Biodiversity and Conservation, 13, pp. 1419-1425Terborgh J, Keystone plant resources in the tropical forest (1986) Conservation Biology, pp. 330-340. , In*Soulé M.E. Sinauer Sunderland, MA edVenables W, N., Ripley, B.D., (2002) Modern Applied Statistics with S, , Springer New YorkWang B, C., Smith, T.B., Closing the seed dispersal loop (2002) Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 17, pp. 379-385Wright S, J., The myriad consequences of hunting for vertebrates and plants in tropical forests (2003) Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics, 6, pp. 73-86Wright S, J., Duber, H.C., Poachers and forest fragmentation alter seed dispersal, seed survival, and seedling recruitment in the palm Attalea butyracea, with implications for tropical tree diversity (2001) Biotropica, 33, pp. 583-595Wright S, J., Zeballos, H., Dominguez, I., Gallardo, M.M., Moreno, M.C., Ibanez, R., Poachers alter mammal abundance, seed dispersal, and seed predation in a neotropical forest (2000) Conservation Biology, 14, pp. 227-239Zona S, Henderson, A., A review of animal-mediated seed dispersal of palms (1989) Selbyana, 11, pp. 6-2

Living In The Land Of Ghosts: Fruit Traits And The Importance Of Large Mammals As Seed Dispersers In The Pantanal, Brazil

[No abstract available]104123Alho, C.J.R., Lacher Jr., T.E., Mammalian conservation in the Pantanal of Brazil (1991) Latin American Mammalogy: History, Biodiversity and Conservation, , In: Mares, M. and Schmidly, D.J. (eds) University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OklahomaBollen, A., Van Elsacker, L., Ganzhorn, J.U., Relations between fruits and disperser assemblages in a Malagasy littoral forest: a community-level approach (2004) Journal of Tropical Ecology, 20, pp. 599-612Campassi, F., (2006) PadrÚCes geográficos das síndromes de dispersão e características dos frutos de espécies arbustivo-arbóreas em comunidades vegetais da Mata Atlântica, , MSc thesis, Universidade de São Paulo, BrazilCartelle, C., Pleistocene mammals of the cerrado and caatinga of Brazil (1999) Mammals of the Neotropics: The Central Neotropics, pp. 27-46. , In: Eisenberg, J.F. and Redford, K.H. (eds) University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IllinoisChapman, C.A., Chapman, L.J., Survival without dispersers: seedling recruitment under parents (1995) Conservation Biology, 9, pp. 675-678Cristoffer, C., Peres, C.A., Elephants versus butterflies: the ecological role of large herbivores in the evolutionary history of two tropical worlds (2003) Journal of Biogeography, 30, pp. 1357-1380Cordeiro, N.J., Howe, H.F., Low recruitment of trees dispersed by animals in African forest fragments (2001) Conservation Biology, 15, pp. 1733-1741Corlett, R.T., Primack, R.B., Tropical rainforests and the need for cross-continental comparisons (2006) Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 21 (2), pp. 104-110Durrett, R., Levin, S., Stochastic spatial models: a user's guide to ecological applications (1994) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 343, pp. 329-350Fa, J.E., Peres, C.A., Meeuwig, J., Bushmeat exploitation in tropical forest: an intercontinental comparison (2002) Conservation Biology, 16 (1), pp. 232-237Fariña, R.A., Trophic relationships among Lujanian mammals (1996) Evolutionary Theory, 11, pp. 125-134Fariña, R., Vizcaíno, S.F., Bargo, M.R., Body mass estimations in Lujanian (Late Pleistocene-early Holocene of South America) mammal megafauna (1998) Mastozoologia Neotropical, 5, pp. 87-108Fischer, K.E., Chapman, C.A., Frugivores and fruit syndromes: difference in patterns at the genus and species level (1993) Oikos, 66, pp. 472-482Fleming, T.H., Fruiting plant-frugivore mutualism: the evolutionary theater and the ecological play (1991) Plant-Animal Interactions: Evolutionary Ecology in Tropical and Temperate Regions, pp. 119-144. , In: Price, P.W., Lewinsohn, T.W., Fernández, G.W. and Benson, W.W. (eds) John Wiley and Sons, New YorkFleming, T.H., The relationship between species richness of vertebrate mutualists and their food plants in tropical and subtropical communities differs among hemispheres (2005) Oikos, 111, pp. 556-562Fleming, T.H., Breitwisch, R., Whitesides, G., Patterns of tropical vertebrate frugivore diversity (1987) Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 18, pp. 91-109Galetti, M., Fruits and frugivores in a Brazilian Atlantic forest (1996), PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, UKGaletti, M., Seed dispersal of mimetic seeds: parasitism, mutualism, aposematism or exaptation? (2002) Seed Dispersal and Frugivory: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, pp. 177-192. , In: Levey, D.J., Silva, W.R. and Galetti, M. (eds) CAB International Publishing, Wallingford, UKGaletti, M., Parques do Pleistoceno: recriando o cerrado e o pantanal com a megafauna (2004) Natureza & Conservação, 2, pp. 18-24Galetti, M., Guimarães, Jr.P.R., Seed dispersal of Attalea phalerata (Palmae) by crested caracaras (Caracara plancus) in the pantanal and a review of frugivory by raptors (2004) Ararajuba, 12 (2), pp. 59-61Galetti, M., Pizo, M.A., Morellato, P.C., Métodos para o estudo da fenologia, frugivoria e dispersão de sementes (2002) Manual para o Manejo da Vida Silvestre no Brasil, pp. 395-422. , In: Cüllen, L., Rudran, R. and Pádua, C.V. (eds) Smithsonian Institution Press and Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas, Nazaré Paulista, BrazilGaletti, M., Donatti, C.I., Pires, A.S., Guimarães Jr., P.R., Jordano, P., Seed survival and dispersal of an endemic Atlantic forest palm: the combined effects of defaunation and forest fragmentation (2006) Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 151, pp. 141-149Gautier-Hion, A., Duplantier, J.M., Quris, R., Feer, F., Sourd, C., Decoux, J.P., Dubost, G., Hecketsweiler, P., Fruit characters as a basis of fruit choice and seed dispersal in a tropical forest vertebrate community (1985) Oecologia, 65, pp. 324-337Harris, M.B., Tomas, W., Da Silva, C.J., Guimarães, E., Sonada, F., Fachim, E., Safeguarding the Pantanal wetlands: threats and conservation initiatives (2005) Conservation Biology, 19, pp. 714-720Herhey, D.R., The widespread misconception that the tambalacoque or Calvaria tree absolutely required the dodo bird for its seeds to germinate (2004) Plant Science Bulletin, 50, pp. 105-109Herrera, C.M., Seed dispersal by animals: a role in angiosperm diversification? (1989) American Naturalist, 133, pp. 309-322Herrera, C.M., Seed dispersal by vertebrates (2002) Plant-Animal Interactions: An Evolutionary Approach, pp. 185-208. , In: Herrera, C.M. and O. Pellmyr (eds) Blackwell Science, Oxford, UKHill, A.W., The genus Calvaria, with an account of the stony endocarp and germination of the seed, and description of the new species (1941) Annals of Botany, 5, pp. 587-606Hovestadt, T., Yao, P., Linsenmair, E., Seed dispersal mechanisms and the vegetation of forest islands in a West African forest-savanna mosaic (Comoé National Park, Ivory Coast) (1999) Plant Ecology, 144, pp. 1-25Howe, H.F., Gomphothere fruits: a critique (1985) American Naturalist, 125, pp. 853-865Howe, H.F., Seed dispersal by fruit-eating birds and mammals (1986) Seed Dispersal, pp. 123-189. , In: Murray, D.R. (ed.) Academic Press, Sydney, AustraliaHubbell, S., Seed predation and the coexistence of tree species in tropical forests (1980) Oikos, 35, pp. 214-229Hunter, J.R., Seed dispersal and germination of Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb . (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae): are megafauna necessary? (1989) Journal of Biogeography, 16, pp. 369-378Janzen, D.H., Fruit traits, and seed consumption by rodents, of Crescentia alata (Bignoniaceae) in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica (1982) American Journal of Botany, 69, pp. 1258-1268Janzen, D.H., Martin, P.S., Neotropical anachronisms: the fruits the Gomphoteres ate (1982) Science, 215, pp. 19-27Janson, C.H., Adaptation of fruit morphology to dispersal agents in a neotropical forest (1983) Science, 219, pp. 187-189Jordano, P., Angiosperm fleshy fruits and seed dispersers: a comparative analysis of adaptation and constraints in plant-animal interactions (1995) American Naturalist, 145, pp. 163-191Jordano, P., Fruits and frugivory (2000) Seeds: The Ecology of Regeneration in Plant Communities, pp. 125-166. , In: Fenner, M. (ed.) CAB International, Wallingford, UKJordano, P., Schupp, E.W., Seed disperser effectiveness: the quantity component and patterns of seed rain for Prunus mahaleb (2000) Ecological Monographs, 70, pp. 591-615Jordano, P., Bascompte, J., Olesen, J.M., Invariant properties in coevolutionary networks of plant-animal interactions (2003) Ecology Letters, 6, pp. 69-81Levey, D.J., Seed size and fruit-handling techniques of avian frugivores (1987) American Naturalist, 129, pp. 471-485Lord, J.M., Markey, A.S., Marshall, J., Have frugivores influenced the evolution of fruit traits in New Zealand? (2002) Seed Dispersal and Frugivory: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, pp. 55-68. , In: Levey, D.J., Silva, W.R, and Galetti, M. (eds) CAB International, Wallingford, UKLourival, R.F.F., Análise de sustentabilidade do modelo de caça tradicional, no Pantanal da Nhecolandia, Corumbá, MS (1997) Manejo e conservação de vida silvestre no Brasil, pp. 123-172. , In: Valladares-Padua, C. and Bodmer, R. (eds) MCT-CNPq, Sociedade Civil Mamiraua, BrazilMack, A.L., The sizes of vertebrate-dispersed fruits: a Neotropical-Paleotropical comparison (1993) American Naturalist, 142, pp. 840-856Martin, P.S., Klein, R., (1984) Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution, , University of Arizona Press, Tucson, ArizonaMcCarthy, T.S., Ellery, W.N., Dangerfield, J.M., The role of biota in the initiation and growth of islands on the floodplain of the Okavango alluvial fan, Botswana (1998) Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 23, pp. 291-316McConkey, K.R., Drake, D.R., Extinct pigeons and declining bat populations: are large seeds still being dispersed in the tropical pacific? (2002) Seed Dispersal and Frugivory: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, pp. 381-395. , In: Levey, D.J., Silva, W.R.and Galetti, M. (eds) CAB International, Wallingford, UKMadinah, E., Physiological ecology of neotropical savannas (1982) Ecology of Tropical Savannas. Ecological Studies, 42. , In: Huntley, B.J. and Walker, B.H. (eds) Springer, Berlin, GermanyMittermeier, R.A., Harris, M.B., Mittermeier, C.G., da Silva J.M.C Lourival, R., Fonseca, G.A.B., Seligmann, P.A., (2005) Pantanal: South America's Wetland Jewel, , Conservation International, Washington, DCMiura, S., Yasuda, M., Ratnam, L., Who steals the fruits? Monitoring frugivory of mammals in a tropical rain forest (1997) Malayan Nature Journal, 50, pp. 183-193Moermond, T.C., Denslow, J.S., Neotropical avian frugivores: patterns of behaviour, morphology, and nutrition, with consequences for fruit selection (1985) Neotropical Ornithology, pp. 865-889. , In: Buckley, P.A., Foster, M.S., Morton, E.S., Ridgely, R.S. and Buckley, F.G. (eds) Ornithological Monographs No. 36. American Ornithologists Union, McLean, VirginiaMourão, G.M., Coutinho, M.E., Mauro, R., Tomás, W.M., Magnusson, W.E., (2002) Levantamentos aéreos de espécies introduzidas no Pantanal: porcos ferais (porco monteiro), gado bovino e búfalos, , EMPRABA, Corumbá, MS, BrazilOwen-Smith, R.N., (1988) Megaherbivores: The Influence of Very Large Body Size on Ecology, , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UKOwen-Smith, N., Megafaunal extinctions: the conservation message from 11,000 years (1989) Conservation Biology, 3, pp. 405-412Peres, C.A., Effects of subsistence hunting on vertebrate community structure in Amazonian forests (2000) Conservation Biology, 14, pp. 240-253Peres, C.A., Synergistic effects of subsistence hunting and habitat fragmentation on Amazonian forest vertebrates (2001) Conservation Biology, 15, pp. 1490-1505Pott, A., Pott, V.J., (1994) Plantas do Pantanal, , EMBRAPA, Corumbá, MS, BrazilPrance, G.T., Schaller, G.B., Preliminary studies of some vegetation types of the Pantanal, Mato Grosso, Brazil (1982) Brittonia, 34, pp. 228-251Prins, H.H., Reitma, J.M., Mammalian biomass in an African equatorial rain forest (1989) Journal of Animal Ecology, 58, pp. 851-861Schluter, D., The evolution of finch communities on islands and continents: Kenya vs. Galápagos (1988) Ecological Monographs, 58, pp. 229-249Silva, M.P., Mauro, R., Mourão, G., Couttinho, M., Distribuição e quantificação de classes de vegetação do Pantanal através de levantamento aéreo (2000) Revista Brasileira de Botânica, 23, pp. 143-152Snow, D.W., Regional differences between tropical floras and the evolution of frugivory (1980) Acta XVII Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici, pp. 1192-1198. , In: Nohring, R. (ed.) Deuschen Ornithologen-Gesellschaft, Berlin, GermanySwarts, F.A., The Pantanal in the 21st century (2000) The Pantanal: Understanding and Preserving the World's Largest Wetland, pp. 1-22. , In: Swarts, F.A. (ed.) Paragon House, St Paul, MinnesotaTemple, S.A., Plant-animal mutualism: coevolution with dodo leads to near extinction of plant (1977) Science, 197, pp. 885-886Thomas, V., Grant, R., (2002) Sappi Tree Spotting, , Jacana Publishing, Johannesburg, South AfricaTraveset, A., Riera, N., Disruption of a plant-lizard seed dispersal system and its ecological effects on a threatened endemic plant in the Balearic Islands (2005) Conservation Biology, 19, pp. 421-431Trolle, M., Mammal survey in the southeastern Pantanal, Brazil (2003) Biodiversity and Conservation, 12, pp. 823-836van Wyk, P., (1997) Southern African Trees: A Photographic Guide, , Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South AfricaVoigt, F.A., Bleher, B., Fietz, J., Ganzhorn, J.U., Schwab, D., Bohning-Gaese, K., A comparison of morphological and chemical fruit traits between two sites with different frugivore assemblages (2004) Oecologia, 141, pp. 94-104Witmer, M.C., The dodo and the tambalacoque tree: an obligate mutualism reconsidered (1991) Oikos, 61, pp. 133-13

Ecological consequences of Late Quaternary extinctions of megafauna

Large herbivorous vertebrates have strong interactions with vegetation, affecting the structure, composition and dynamics of plant communities in many ways. Living large herbivores are a small remnant of the assemblages of giants that existed in most terrestrial ecosystems 50 000 years ago. The extinction of so many large herbivores may well have triggered large changes in plant communities. In several parts of the world, palaeoecological studies suggest that extinct megafauna once maintained vegetation openness, and in wooded landscapes created mosaics of different structural types of vegetation with high habitat and species diversity. Following megafaunal extinction, these habitats reverted to more dense and uniform formations. Megafaunal extinction also led to changes in fire regimes and increased fire frequency due to accumulation of uncropped plant material, but there is a great deal of variation in post-extinction changes in fire. Plant communities that once interacted with extinct large herbivores still contain many species with obsolete defences against browsing and non-functional adaptations for seed dispersal. Such plants may be in decline, and, as a result, many plant communities may be in various stages of a process of relaxation from megafauna-conditioned to megafauna-naive states. Understanding the past role of giant herbivores provides fundamental insight into the history, dynamics and conservation of contemporary plant communities