Competitive reactions and the cross-sales effects of advertising and promotion.

Abstract: How do competitors react to each other's price-promotion and advertising actions? How do these reactions influence the net sales impact we observe? We answer these questions by performing a large-scale empirical study of the short-run and long-run reactions to promotion and advertising shocks in over 400 consumer product categories, over a four-year time span.Competitive reaction can be passive, accommodating or retaliatory. We first develop a series of expectations on the type and intensity of reaction behavior, and on the moderators of this behavior. These expectations are assessed in two ways. First, vector-autoregressive models quantify the short-run and long-run effect of a promotion or advertising action on competitive sales and on competitive reactions. By cataloging the numerical results, we are able to formulate empirical generalizations of reaction behavior ('how do they react?'). Second, we estimate structural models of reaction intensity, in function of various market and competitive characteristics ('what are the drivers of reaction?'). Finally, by comparing our findings on reaction behavior with those on promotion and advertising effectiveness, we are able to evaluate competitive reaction behavior ('are they reacting as they should?').A major finding is that competitive reaction is predominantly passive. When it is present, it is usually retaliatory in the same instrument, but accommodating or retaliatory in a different instrument. There are very few long-run consequences of any type of reaction behavior. We also report on several moderating effects that are in line with expectations, and that support the presence of a certain amount of rationality in competitive reaction behavior.The net impact of the over-time effects of advertising and price-promotion attacks, competitive reactions and the sales effectiveness of each, is that competitors' sales are generally not affected, and especially not in the long run. We weigh the evidence that this sales neutrality is 'natural' (i.e., due to the nature of consumer response) versus 'managed' (i.e., due to the vigilance and effectiveness of competitors), and conclude in favor of the former.

Towards a project management framework for ICT projects in defence institutions

A framework for information and communication technology (ICT) projects may address the discord between traditional project management and that which is required for ICT projects within defence institutions. The problem is underlined by the pace of technological development and the current application of compromised project management. Globally, no specific project management methodology is prominently suitable for solution delivery within defence institutions. The aim of this research was to address the problem by development of a framework for the management of ICT projects for defence institutions. The research methods used to address the problem were twofold with respect to a descriptive study. Secondary sources were utilised to describe a thorough background to the problem, and secondly, a descriptive case study was used. The ICT function of the South African Department of Defence (DOD) was used for the case study. A synthesis of the data from these sources guided the development of a framework. The final outcome was the development and enlightenment of a conceptual framework for the management of ICT projects after considering the unique challenges of the military, while reviewing relevant project management methodologies. In conclusion, the conceptual framework proposes a hypothetically workable approach for the management of ICT projects in defence institutions

Structure and evolution of the Fusarium mating type locus : new insights from the Gibberella fujikuroi complex

Mating type genes are central to sexual reproduction and compatibility in Ascomycete fungi. However the “MAT” loci experience unique evolutionary pressures that can result in rapid divergence and enhanced inter-specific gene-flow (lateral gene transfer). In this study, molecular evolution of MAT loci was considered using the genus Fusarium (Teleomorph: Gibberella) as a model. Both MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 “idiomorphs” from eleven species of the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex were sequenced. Molecular evolution of the MAT loci from these heterothallic (self-sterile) species was compared with that of the MAT loci from nine homothallic (self-fertile) species in the Fusarium graminearum species complex. Although Fusarium has previously been thought to have the same complement of four MAT genes that are found in Neurospora, we found evidence of a novel gene, MAT1-2-3, that may be specific to the Hypocreales. All MAT genes share a similar set of cis-regulatory motifs, although homothallic species might have recruited novel regulatory elements, which could potentially facilitate alternate expression of MAT1-1-1 and MAT1-2-1. Fusarium MAT loci displayed evidence consistent with historical lateral gene-flow. Most notably, the MAT1-1 idiomorph of Fusarium sacchari appears to be unrelated to those of other species in the G. fujikuroi complex. In general, Fusarium MAT genes are highly divergent. Both positive selection and relaxed selective constraint could account for this phenomenon. However, the extent of both recombination and inter-specific gene-flow in the MAT locus also appears to affect the rate of divergence.National Research Foundation (NRF), the DST (Department of Science and Technology)/NRF Centre of Excellence in Tree Health Biotechnology (CTHB), the University of Pretoria, the Tree Protection Cooperative Programme (TPCP)

Causes and consequences of variability in peptide mating pheromones of ascomycete fungi

The reproductive genes of fungi, like those of many other organisms, are thought to diversify rapidly. This phenomenon could be associated with the formation of reproductive barriers and speciation. Ascomycetes produce two classes of mating-type-specific peptide pheromones. These are required for recognition between the mating types of heterothallic species. Little is known regarding the diversity or the extent of species-specificity in pheromone peptides among these fungi. We compared the putative protein-coding DNA sequences of the two pheromone classes from 70 species of Ascomycetes. The dataset included previously-described pheromones and putative pheromones identified from genomic sequences. In addition, pheromone genes from twelve Fusarium species in the Gibberella fujikuroi complex were amplified and sequenced. Pheromones were largely conserved among species in this complex and, therefore, cannot alone account for the reproductive barriers observed between these species. In contrast, pheromone peptides were highly diverse among many other Ascomycetes, with evidence for both positive diversifying selection and relaxed selective constraint. Repeats of the α-factor-like pheromone, which occur in tandem arrays of variable copy number, were found to be conserved through purifying selection and not concerted evolution. This implies that sequence-specificity may be important for pheromone reception and that inter-specific differences may indeed be associated with functional divergence. Our findings also suggest that frequent duplication and loss causes the tandem-repeats to experience “birth-and-death” evolution, which could in fact facilitate interspecific divergence of pheromone peptide sequences.The National Research Foundation (NRF), the DST/NRF Centre of Excellence in Tree Health Biotechnology (CTHB), the University of Pretoria and the Tree Protection Cooperative Programme (TPCP).http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/nf201