Doc2 Proteins Are Not Required for the Increased Spontaneous Release Rate in Synaptotagmin-1-Deficient Neurons

Regulated secretion is controlled by Ca 2+ sensors with different affinities and subcellular distributions. Inactivation of Syt1 (synaptotagmin-1), the main Ca 2+ sensor for synchronous neurotransmission in many neurons, enhances asynchronous and spontaneous release rates, suggesting that Syt1 inhibits other sensors with higher Ca 2+ affinities and/or lower cooperativities. Such sensors could include Doc2a and Doc2b, which have been implicated in spontaneous and asynchronous neurotransmitter release and compete with Syt1 for binding SNARE complexes. Here, we tested this hypothesis using triple-knock-out mice. Inactivation of Doc2a and Doc2b in Syt1-deficient neurons did not reduce the high spontaneous release rate. Overexpression of Doc2b variants in triple-knock-out neurons reduced spontaneous release but did not rescue synchronous release. A chimeric construct in which the C2AB domain of Syt1 was substituted by that of Doc2b did not support synchronous release either. Conversely, the soluble C2AB domain of Syt1 did not affect spontaneous release. We conclude that the high spontaneous release rate in synaptotagmin-deficient neurons does not involve the binding of Doc2 proteins to Syt1 binding sites in the SNARE complex. Instead, our results suggest that the C2AB domains of Syt1 and Doc2b specifically support synchronous and spontaneous release by separate mechanisms. (Both male and female neurons were studied without sex determination)

Docking of Secretory Vesicles Is Syntaxin Dependent

Secretory vesicles dock at the plasma membrane before they undergo fusion. Molecular docking mechanisms are poorly defined but believed to be independent of SNARE proteins. Here, we challenged this hypothesis by acute deletion of the target SNARE, syntaxin, in vertebrate neurons and neuroendocrine cells. Deletion resulted in fusion arrest in both systems. No docking defects were observed in synapses, in line with previous observations. However, a drastic reduction in morphologically docked secretory vesicles was observed in chromaffin cells. Syntaxin-deficient chromaffin cells showed a small reduction in total and plasma membrane staining for the docking factor Munc18-1, which appears insufficient to explain the drastic reduction in docking. The sub-membrane cortical actin network was unaffected by syntaxin deletion. These observations expose a docking role for syntaxin in the neuroendocrine system. Additional layers of regulation may have evolved to make syntaxin redundant for docking in highly specialized systems like synaptic active zones

High Speed Two-Photon Imaging of Calcium Dynamics in Dendritic Spines: Consequences for Spine Calcium Kinetics and Buffer Capacity

Rapid calcium concentration changes in postsynaptic structures are crucial for synaptic plasticity. Thus far, the determinants of postsynaptic calcium dynamics have been studied predominantly based on the decay kinetics of calcium transients. Calcium rise times in spines in response to single action potentials (AP) are almost never measured due to technical limitations, but they could be crucial for synaptic plasticity. With high-speed, precisely-targeted, two-photon point imaging we measured both calcium rise and decay kinetics in spines and secondary dendrites in neocortical pyramidal neurons. We found that both rise and decay kinetics of changes in calcium-indicator fluorescence are about twice as fast in spines. During AP trains, spine calcium changes follow each AP, but not in dendrites. Apart from the higher surface-to-volume ratio (SVR), we observed that neocortical dendritic spines have a markedly smaller endogenous buffer capacity with respect to their parental dendrites. Calcium influx time course and calcium extrusion rate were both in the same range for spines and dendrites when fitted with a dynamic multi-compartment model that included calcium binding kinetics and diffusion. In a subsequent analysis we used this model to investigate which parameters are critical determinants in spine calcium dynamics. The model confirmed the experimental findings: a higher SVR is not sufficient by itself to explain the faster rise time kinetics in spines, but only when paired with a lower buffer capacity in spines. Simulations at zero calcium-dye conditions show that calmodulin is more efficiently activated in spines, which indicates that spine morphology and buffering conditions in neocortical spines favor synaptic plasticity

Molecular Machines in the Synapse: Overlapping Protein Sets Control Distinct Steps in Neurosecretion

Activity regulated neurotransmission shapes the computational properties of a neuron and involves the concerted action of many proteins. Classical, intuitive working models often assign specific proteins to specific steps in such complex cellular processes, whereas modern systems theories emphasize more integrated functions of proteins. To test how often synaptic proteins participate in multiple steps in neurotransmission we present a novel probabilistic method to analyze complex functional data from genetic perturbation studies on neuronal secretion. Our method uses a mixture of probabilistic principal component analyzers to cluster genetic perturbations on two distinct steps in synaptic secretion, vesicle priming and fusion, and accounts for the poor standardization between different studies. Clustering data from 121 perturbations revealed that different perturbations of a given protein are often assigned to different steps in the release process. Furthermore, vesicle priming and fusion are inversely correlated for most of those perturbations where a specific protein domain was mutated to create a gain-of-function variant. Finally, two different modes of vesicle release, spontaneous and action potential evoked release, were affected similarly by most perturbations. This data suggests that the presynaptic protein network has evolved as a highly integrated supramolecular machine, which is responsible for both spontaneous and activity induced release, with a group of core proteins using different domains to act on multiple steps in the release process

Synaptotagmin-1 enables frequency coding by suppressing asynchronous release in a temperature dependent manner

To support frequency-coded information transfer, mammalian synapses tightly synchronize neurotransmitter release to action potentials (APs). However, release desynchronizes during AP trains, especially at room temperature. Here we show that suppression of asynchronous release by Synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1), but not release triggering, is highly temperature sensitive, and enhances synchronous release during high-frequency stimulation. In Syt1-deficient synapses, asynchronous release increased with temperature, opposite to wildtype synapses. Mutations in Syt1 C2B-domain polybasic stretch (Syt1 K326Q,K327Q,K331Q) did not affect synchronization during sustained activity, while the previously observed reduced synchronous response to a single AP was confirmed. However, an inflexible linker between the C2-domains (Syt1 9Pro) reduced suppression, without affecting synchronous release upon a single AP. Syt1 9Pro expressing synapses showed impaired synchronization during AP trains, which was rescued by buffering global Ca2+ to prevent asynchronous release. Hence, frequency coding relies on Syt1’s temperature sensitive suppression of asynchronous release, an aspect distinct from its known vesicle recruitment and triggering functions

Publisher Correction: Synaptotagmin-1 enables frequency coding by suppressing asynchronous release in a temperature dependent manner (Scientific Reports, (2019), 9, 1, (11341), 10.1038/s41598-019-47487-9)

The original version of this Article contained an error in Affiliation 1, which was incorrectly given as ‘Department of Functional Genomics, Clinical Genetics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, University Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands’. The correct affiliation is listed below: Department of Functional Genomics, Clinical Genetics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam University Medical Center- Location VUmc, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. This error has now been corrected in the HTML and PDF versions of the Article, and in the accompanying Supplementary Material.

Figure 3

<p>Spontaneous and evoked vesicle fusion is impaired in synapses lacking syntaxin. (A) Representative traces of mEPSC's in whole-cell voltage clamp recordings from control synapses showed frequent spontaneous miniature events, while syntaxin deleted synapses show a strong reduction of spontaneous release. (B) Frequency of spontaneous synaptic events. Numbers indicate mean±SEM for control (n = 5) and BoNT/C infected (n = 4) neurons from N = 2 different animals (***p<0.05, ANOVA and student's t-test). (C) Action potential triggered release is completely blocked by BoNT/C.</p

Empirical Bayesian Random Censoring Threshold Model Improves Detection of Differentially Abundant Proteins

A challenge in proteomics is that many observations are missing with the probability of missingness increasing as abundance decreases. Adjusting for this informative missingness is required to assess accurately which proteins are differentially abundant. We propose an empirical Bayesian random censoring threshold (EBRCT) model that takes the pattern of missingness in account in the identification of differential abundance. We compare our model with four alternatives, one that considers the missing values as missing completely at random (MCAR model), one with a fixed censoring threshold for each protein species (fixed censoring model) and two imputation models, <i>k</i>-nearest neighbors (IKNN) and singular value thresholding (SVTI). We demonstrate that the EBRCT model bests all alternative models when applied to the CPTAC study 6 benchmark data set. The model is applicable to any label-free peptide or protein quantification pipeline and is provided as an R script

Figure 5

<p>Distribution of Munc18-1 is altered in syntaxin deleted chromaffin cells. (A) Immunolocalization of syntaxin (blue) and Munc18-1 (red) in SFV-<i>egfp</i> or <i>BoNT/C</i>-ires-<i>egfp</i> infected chromaffin cells. Scale bars represent 2 µm. (B) Average pixel intensity of Munc18-1 expression obtained from line scans through a confocal section of a BoNT/C and EGFP expressing cell. Inset shows how line scans were made from <b>a</b> to <b>b</b> (C) Quantification of the Munc18-1 expression at the plasma membrane. Numbers indicate mean±SEM. from n = 22 cells and N = 3 animals (***p<0.01, ANOVA and student's t-test, comparison to control).</p