Searches for neutrinos in the direction of radio-bright blazars with the ANTARES telescope

Active galaxies, especially blazars, are among the most promising neutrino source candidates. To date, ANTARES searches for these objects considered GeV-TeV $\gamma$-ray bright blazars. Here, a statistically complete radio-bright blazar sample is used as the target for searches of origins of neutrinos collected by the ANTARES neutrino telescope over 13 years of operation. The hypothesis of a neutrino-blazar directional correlation is tested by pair counting and by a complementary likelihood-based approach. The resulting post-trial $p$-value is $3.0\%$ ($2.2\sigma$ in the two-sided convention), possibly indicating a correlation. Additionally, a time-dependent analysis is performed to search for temporal clustering of neutrino candidates as a mean of detecting neutrino flares in blazars. None of the investigated sources alone reaches a significant flare detection level. However, the presence of 18 sources with a pre-trial significance above $3\sigma$ indicates a $p=1.4\%$ ($2.5\sigma$ in the two-sided convention) detection of a time-variable neutrino flux. An \textit{a posteriori} investigation reveals an intriguing temporal coincidence of neutrino, radio, and $\gamma$-ray flares of the J0242+1101 blazar at a $p=0.5\%$ ($2.9\sigma$ in the two-sided convention) level. Altogether, the results presented here suggest a possible connection of neutrino candidates detected by the ANTARES telescope with radio-bright blazars

Investigating the blazar TXS 0506+056 through sharp multi-wavelength eyes during 2017-2019

The blazar TXS 0506+056 got into the spotlight of the astrophysical community in September 2017, when a high-energy neutrino detected by IceCube (IceCube-170922A) was associated at the 3 $\sigma$ level to a $\gamma$-ray flare from this source. This multi-messenger photon-neutrino association remains, as per today, the most significant one ever observed. TXS 0506+056 was a poorly studied object before the IceCube-170922A event. To better characterize its broad-band emission, we organized a multi-wavelength campaign lasting 16 months (November 2017 to February 2019), covering the radio-band (Mets\"ahovi, OVRO), the optical/UV (ASAS-SN, KVA, REM, Swift/UVOT), the X-rays (Swift/XRT, NuSTAR), the high-energy $\gamma$ rays (Fermi/LAT) and the very-high-energy (VHE) $\gamma$ rays (MAGIC). In $\gamma$ rays, the behaviour of the source was significantly different from the 2017 one: MAGIC observations show the presence of flaring activity during December 2018, while the source only shows an excess at the 4$\sigma$ level during the rest of the campaign (74 hours of accumulated exposure); Fermi/LAT observations show several short (days-to-week timescale) flares, different from the long-term brightening of 2017. No significant flares are detected at lower energies. The radio light curve shows an increasing flux trend, not seen in other wavelengths. We model the multi-wavelength spectral energy distributions in a lepto-hadronic scenario, in which the hadronic emission emerges as Bethe-Heitler and pion-decay cascade in the X-rays and VHE $\gamma$ rays. According to the model presented here, the December 2018 $\gamma$-ray flare was connected to a neutrino emission that was too brief and not bright enough to be detected by current neutrino instruments.Comment: 18 pages, 6 figures; in press in Ap

Gamma-Rays from the Quasar PKS 1441+25

VK: BIBCODE: 2015ApJ...815L..22A; DOI: 10.1088/2041-8205/815/2/L22;; eprintid: arXiv:1512.04434Peer reviewe

Investigating the Blazar TXS 0506+056 through Sharp Multiwavelength Eyes During 2017–2019

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.--Full list of authors: Acciari, V. A.; Aniello, T.; Ansoldi, S.; Antonelli, L. A.; Arbet Engels, A.; Artero, M.; Asano, K.; Baack, D.; Babić, A.; Baquero, A.; Barres de Almeida, U.; Barrio, J. A.; Batković, I.; Becerra González, J.; Bednarek, W.; Bernardini, E.; Bernardos, M.; Berti, A.; Besenrieder, J.; Bhattacharyya, W.; Bigongiari, C.; Biland, A.; Blanch, O.; Bökenkamp, H.; Bonnoli, G.; Bošnjak, Ž.; Busetto, G.; Carosi, R.; Ceribella, G.; Cerruti, M.; Chai, Y.; Chilingarian, A.; Cikota, S.; Colombo, E.; Contreras, J. L.; Cortina, J.; Covino, S.; D'Amico, G.; D'Elia, V.; Vela, P. Da; Dazzi, F.; De Angelis, A.; De Lotto, B.; Del Popolo, A.; Delfino, M.; Delgado, J.; Mendez, C. Delgado; Depaoli, D.; Di Pierro, F.; Di Venere, L.; Do Souto Espiñeira, E.; Dominis Prester, D.; Donini, A.; Dorner, D.; Doro, M.; Elsaesser, D.; Fallah Ramazani, V.; Fariña, L.; Fattorini, A.; Font, L.; Fruck, C.; Fukami, S.; Fukazawa, Y.; García López, R. J.; Garczarczyk, M.; Gasparyan, S.; Gaug, M.; Giglietto, N.; Giordano, F.; Gliwny, P.; Godinović, N.; Green, J. G.; Green, D.; Hadasch, D.; Hahn, A.; Hassan, T.; Heckmann, L.; Herrera, J.; Hoang, J.; Hrupec, D.; Hütten, M.; Inada, T.; Iotov, R.; Ishio, K.; Iwamura, Y.; Jiménez Martínez, I.; Jormanainen, J.; Jouvin, L.; Kerszberg, D.; Kobayashi, Y.; Kubo, H.; Kushida, J.; Lamastra, A.; Lelas, D.; Leone, F.; Lindfors, E.; Linhoff, L.; Lombardi, S.; Longo, F.; López-Coto, R.; López-Moya, M.; López-Oramas, A.; Loporchio, S.; Machado de Oliveira Fraga, B.; Maggio, C.; Majumdar, P.; Makariev, M.; Mallamaci, M.; Maneva, G.; Manganaro, M.; Mannheim, K.; Mariotti, M.; Martínez, M.; Mas Aguilar, A.; Mazin, D.; Menchiari, S.; Mender, S.; Mićanović, S.; Miceli, D.; Miener, T.; Miranda, J. M.; Mirzoyan, R.; Molina, E.; Moralejo, A.; Morcuende, D.; Moreno, V.; Moretti, E.; Nakamori, T.; Nava, L.; Neustroev, V.; Nievas Rosillo, M.; Nigro, C.; Nilsson, K.; Nishijima, K.; Noda, K.; Nozaki, S.; Ohtani, Y.; Oka, T.; Otero-Santos, J.; Paiano, S.; Palatiello, M.; Paneque, D.; Paoletti, R.; Paredes, J. M.; Pavletić, L.; Peñil, P.; Persic, M.; Pihet, M.; Prada Moroni, P. G.; Prandini, E.; Priyadarshi, C.; Puljak, I.; Rhode, W.; Ribó, M.; Rico, J.; Righi, C.; Rugliancich, A.; Sahakyan, N.; Saito, T.; Sakurai, S.; Satalecka, K.; Saturni, F. G.; Schleicher, B.; Schmidt, K.; Schmuckermaier, F.; Schweizer, T.; Sitarek, J.; Šnidarić, I.; Sobczynska, D.; Spolon, A.; Stamerra, A.; Strišković, J.; Strom, D.; Strzys, M.; Suda, Y.; Surić, T.; Takahashi, M.; Takeishi, R.; Tavecchio, F.; Temnikov, P.; Terzić, T.; Teshima, M.; Tosti, L.; Truzzi, S.; Tutone, A.; Ubach, S.; van Scherpenberg, J.; Vanzo, G.; Vazquez Acosta, M.; Ventura, S.; Verguilov, V.; Viale, I.; Vigorito, C. F.; Vitale, V.; Vovk, I.; Will, M.; Wunderlich, C.; Yamamoto, T.; Zarić, D.; Hodges, M.; Hovatta, T.; Kiehlmann, S.; Liodakis, I.; Max-Moerbeck, W.; Pearson, T. J.; Readhead, A. C. S.; Reeves, R. A.; Lähteenmäki, A.; Tornikoski, M.; Tammi, J.; D'Ammando, F.; Marchini, A.; MAGIC Collaboration; OVRO Collaboration; Metsahovi Collaboration.The blazar TXS 0506+056 got into the spotlight of the astrophysical community in 2017 September, when a high-energy neutrino detected by IceCube (IceCube-170922A) was associated at the 3σ level with a γ-ray flare from this source. This multi-messenger photon-neutrino association remains, as per today, the most significant association ever observed. TXS 0506+056 was a poorly studied object before the IceCube-170922A event. To better characterize its broadband emission, we organized a multiwavelength campaign lasting 16 months (2017 November to 2019 February), covering the radio band (Metsähovi, OVRO), the optical/UV (ASAS-SN, KVA, REM, Swift/UVOT), the X-rays (Swift/XRT, NuSTAR), the high-energy γ rays (Fermi/LAT), and the very high-energy (VHE) γ rays (MAGIC). In γ rays, the behavior of the source was significantly different from the behavior in 2017: MAGIC observations show the presence of flaring activity during 2018 December, while the source only shows an excess at the 4σ level during the rest of the campaign (74 hr of accumulated exposure); Fermi/LAT observations show several short (on a timescale of days to a week) flares, different from the long-term brightening of 2017. No significant flares are detected at lower energies. The radio light curve shows an increasing flux trend that is not seen in other wavelengths. We model the multiwavelength spectral energy distributions in a lepto-hadronic scenario, in which the hadronic emission emerges as Bethe-Heitler and pion-decay cascade in the X-rays and VHE γ rays. According to the model presented here, the 2018 December γ-ray flare was connected to a neutrino emission that was too brief and not bright enough to be detected by current neutrino instruments. © 2022. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society.The financial support of the German BMBF, MPG, and HGF; the Italian INFN and INAF; the Swiss National Fund SNF; the ERDF under the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN) (PID2019-104114RB-C31, PID2019-104114RB-C32, PID2019-104114RB-C33, PID2019-105510GB-C31,PID2019-107847RB-C41, PID2019-107847RB-C42, PID2019-107847RB-C44, PID2019-107988GB-C22); the Indian Department of Atomic Energy; the Japanese ICRR, the University of Tokyo, JSPS, and MEXT; the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science, National RI Roadmap Project DO1-400/18.12.2020 and the Academy of Finland grant nr. 320045 is gratefully acknowledged. This work was also supported by the Spanish Centro de Excelencia "Severo Ochoa" (SEV-2016-0588, SEV-2017-0709, CEX2019-000920-S), the Unidad de Excelencia "María de Maeztu" (CEX2019-000918-M, MDM-2015-0509-18-2) and by the CERCA program of the Generalitat de Catalunya; by the Croatian Science Foundation (HrZZ) Project IP-2016-06-9782 and the University of Rijeka Project 13.12.1.3.02; by the DFG Collaborative Research Centers SFB823/C4 and SFB876/C3; the Polish National Research Centre grant UMO-2016/22/M/ST9/00382; and by the Brazilian MCTIC, CNPq and FAPERJ. E.P. acknowledges funding from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) through the "Dipartimenti di eccellenza" project Science of the universe. M.C. has received financial support through the Postdoctoral Junior Leader Fellowship Programme from la Caixa Banking Foundation, grant No. LCF/BQ/LI18/11630012. This research has made use of data from the OVRO 40 m monitoring program, which was supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G, and NNX14AQ89G, and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911, and private funding from Caltech and the MPIfR. This publication makes use of data obtained at Metsähovi Radio Observatory, operated by Aalto University in Finland.Peer reviewe

Investigating the Blazar TXS 0506+056 through Sharp Multiwavelength Eyes during 2017-2019

Funding Information: We would like to thank the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias for the excellent working conditions at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos in La Palma. The financial support of the German BMBF, MPG, and HGF; the Italian INFN and INAF; the Swiss National Fund SNF; the ERDF under the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MICINN) (PID2019-104114RB-C31, PID2019-104114RB-C32, PID2019-104114RB-C33, PID2019-105510GB-C31,PID2019-107847RB-C41, PID2019-107847RB-C42, PID2019-107847RB-C44, PID2019-107988GB-C22); the Indian Department of Atomic Energy; the Japanese ICRR, the University of Tokyo, JSPS, and MEXT; the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science, National RI Roadmap Project DO1-400/18.12.2020 and the Academy of Finland grant nr. 320045 is gratefully acknowledged. This work was also supported by the Spanish Centro de Excelencia “Severo Ochoa” (SEV-2016-0588, SEV-2017-0709, CEX2019-000920-S), the Unidad de Excelencia “María de Maeztu” (CEX2019-000918-M, MDM-2015-0509-18-2) and by the CERCA program of the Generalitat de Catalunya; by the Croatian Science Foundation (HrZZ) Project IP-2016-06-9782 and the University of Rijeka Project 13.12.1.3.02; by the DFG Collaborative Research Centers SFB823/C4 and SFB876/C3; the Polish National Research Centre grant UMO-2016/22/M/ST9/00382; and by the Brazilian MCTIC, CNPq and FAPERJ. E.P. acknowledges funding from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) through the “Dipartimenti di eccellenza” project Science of the universe. M.C. has received financial support through the Postdoctoral Junior Leader Fellowship Programme from la Caixa Banking Foundation, grant No. LCF/BQ/LI18/11630012. This research has made use of data from the OVRO 40 m monitoring program, which was supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G, and NNX14AQ89G, and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911, and private funding from Caltech and the MPIfR. This publication makes use of data obtained at Metsähovi Radio Observatory, operated by Aalto University in Finland. The authors would like to thank the anonymous referee for their comments that improved the present manuscript. Publisher Copyright: © 2022. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society.The blazar TXS 0506+056 got into the spotlight of the astrophysical community in 2017 September, when a high-energy neutrino detected by IceCube (IceCube-170922A) was associated at the 3σ level with a 3-ray flare from this source. This multi-messenger photon-neutrino association remains, as per today, the most significant association ever observed. TXS 0506+056 was a poorly studied object before the IceCube-170922A event. To better characterize its broadband emission, we organized a multiwavelength campaign lasting 16 months (2017 November to 2019 February), covering the radio band (Metsähovi, OVRO), the optical/UV (ASAS-SN, KVA, REM, Swift/UVOT), the X-rays (Swift/XRT, NuSTAR), the high-energy 3 rays (Fermi/LAT), and the very high-energy (VHE) 3 rays (MAGIC). In 3 rays, the behavior of the source was significantly different from the behavior in 2017: MAGIC observations show the presence of flaring activity during 2018 December, while the source only shows an excess at the 4σ level during the rest of the campaign (74 hr of accumulated exposure); Fermi/LAT observations show several short (on a timescale of days to a week) flares, different from the long-term brightening of 2017. No significant flares are detected at lower energies. The radio light curve shows an increasing flux trend that is not seen in other wavelengths. We model the multiwavelength spectral energy distributions in a lepto-hadronic scenario, in which the hadronic emission emerges as Bethe-Heitler and pion-decay cascade in the X-rays and VHE 3 rays. According to the model presented here, the 2018 December 3-ray flare was connected to a neutrino emission that was too brief and not bright enough to be detected by current neutrino instruments.Peer reviewe

Investigating the multiwavelength behaviour of the flat spectrum radio quasar CTA 102 during 2013-2017

We present a multiwavelength study of the flat-spectrum radio quasar CTA 102 during 2013-2017. We use radio-to-optical data obtained by the Whole Earth Blazar Telescope, 15 GHz data from the Owens Valley Radio Observatory, 91 and 103 GHz data from the Atacama Large Millimeter Array, near-infrared data from the Rapid Eye Monitor telescope, as well as data from the Swift (optical-UV and X-rays) and Fermi (gamma-rays) satellites to study flux and spectral variability and the correlation between flux changes at different wavelengths. Unprecedented gamma-ray flaring activity was observed during 2016 November-2017 February, with four major outbursts. A peak flux of (2158 +/- 63) x 10(-8) ph cm(-2) s(-1), corresponding to a luminosity of (2.2 +/- 0.1) x10(50) erg s(-1), was reached on 2016 December 28. These four gamma-ray outbursts have corresponding events in the near-infrared, optical, and UV bands, with the peaks observed at the same time. A general agreement between X-ray and gamma-ray activity is found. The gamma-ray flux variations show a general, strong correlation with the optical ones with no time lag between the two bands and a comparable variability amplitude. This gamma-ray/optical relationship is in agreement with the geometrical model that has successfully explained the low-energy flux and spectral behaviour, suggesting that the long-term flux variations are mainly due to changes in the Doppler factor produced by variations of the viewing angle of the emitting regions. The difference in behaviour between radio and higher energy emission would be ascribed to different viewing angles of the jet regions producing their emission.Peer reviewe

Multi-epoch monitoring of TXS 0506+056 with MAGIC and MWL partners

The measurement of an astrophysical flux of high-energy neutrinos by IceCube is an important step towards finding the long-sought sources of cosmic rays. Nevertheless, the long exposure neutrino sky map shows no significant indication of point sources so far. The real-time followup of neutrino events turned out to be the most successful approach in neutrino point-source searches. It brought, among others, the most compelling evidence for a neutrino point source: the flaring gamma-ray blazar TXS 0506+056 in coincidence with a single high-energy neutrino from IceCube (IceCube-170922A). The fast multiwavelength(MWL) follow-up of this alert was key for establishing this coincidence and constraining the subsequent theoretical modeling for this event. In the long run, accurate and contemporaneous MWL spectral measurements are essential ingredients in investigating the physical processes leading to particle acceleration and emission of radiation. A deeper understanding of those processes allows us to put constraints on the potential neutrino emission. Here we present the light curves and simultaneous spectral energy distributions from November 2017 till February 2021 of MAGIC and MWL monitoring of TXS 0506+056. The more than the two year-long rise and high state of the radio light curve of TXS 0506+056, which started near the time of the IceCube neutrino detection, seems to have ended, as indicated by a steep decrease in the first half of 2021. We also present the theoretical interpretation of our observations.ISSN:1824-803

Multi-epoch monitoring of TXS 0506+056 with MAGIC and MWL partners

Funding Information: The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. We acknowledge the Gomeroi people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. Funding Information: The members of the MAGIC Collaboration gratefully acknowledge financial support from the agencies and organizations listed here: https://magic.mpp.mpg.de/acknowledgments_ ICRC2021 This research is partly based on observations with the 100-m telescope of the MPIfR (Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie) at Effelsberg. Funding Information: This research has made use of data from the OVRO 40-m monitoring program which was supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G and NNX14AQ89G, and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911, and private funding from Caltech and the MPIfR. Publisher Copyright: © Copyright owned by the author(s) under the terms of the Creative Commons.The measurement of an astrophysical flux of high-energy neutrinos by IceCube is an important step towards finding the long-sought sources of cosmic rays. Nevertheless, the long exposure neutrino sky map shows no significant indication of point sources so far. The real-time followup of neutrino events turned out to be the most successful approach in neutrino point-source searches. It brought, among others, the most compelling evidence for a neutrino point source: the flaring gamma-ray blazar TXS 0506+056 in coincidence with a single high-energy neutrino from IceCube (IceCube-170922A). The fast multiwavelength(MWL) follow-up of this alert was key for establishing this coincidence and constraining the subsequent theoretical modeling for this event. In the long run, accurate and contemporaneous MWL spectral measurements are essential ingredients in investigating the physical processes leading to particle acceleration and emission of radiation. A deeper understanding of those processes allows us to put constraintson the potential neutrino emission. Here we present the light curves and simultaneous spectral energy distributions from November 2017 till February 2021 of MAGIC and MWL monitoring of TXS 0506+056. The more than two-year-long rise and high state of the radio light curve of TXS 0506+056, which started near the time of the IceCube neutrino detection, seems to have ended, as indicated by a steep decrease in the first half of 2021. We also present the theoretical interpretation of our observations.Peer reviewe

Multi-epoch monitoring of TXS 0506+056 with MAGIC and MWL partners

The measurement of an astrophysical flux of high-energy neutrinos by IceCube is an importantstep towards finding the long-sought sources of cosmic rays. Nevertheless, the long exposureneutrino sky map shows no significant indication of point sources so far. The real-time follow-up of neutrino events turned out to be the most successful approach in neutrino point-sourcesearches. It brought, among others, the most compelling evidence for a neutrino point source:the flaring gamma-ray blazar TXS 0506+056 in coincidence with a single high-energy neutrinofrom IceCube (IceCube-170922A). The fast multiwavelength(MWL) follow-up of this alert waskey for establishing this coincidence and constraining the subsequent theoretical modeling for thisevent. In the long run, accurate and contemporaneous MWL spectral measurements are essentialingredients in investigating the physical processes leading to particle acceleration and emission of radiation. A deeper understanding of those processes allows us to put constraints on the potentialneutrinoemission. Herewepresentthelightcurvesandsimultaneousspectralenergydistributionsfrom November 2017 till February 2021 of MAGIC and MWL monitoring of TXS 0506+056.The more than two-year-long rise and high state of the radio light curve of TXS0506+056, whichstarted near the time of the IceCube neutrino detection, seems to have ended, as indicated bya steep decrease in the first half of 2021. We also present the theoretical interpretation of ourobservations

Investigating the multiwavelength behaviour of the flat spectrum radio quasar CTA 102 during 2013–2017

We present a multiwavelength study of the flat-spectrum radio quasar CTA 102 during 2013-2017. We use radio-to-optical data obtained by the Whole Earth Blazar Telescope, 15 GHz data from the Owens Valley Radio Observatory, 91 and 103 GHz data from the Atacama Large Millimeter Array, near-infrared data from the Rapid Eye Monitor telescope, as well as data from the Swift (optical-UV and X-rays) and Fermi (gamma-rays) satellites to study flux and spectral variability and the correlation between flux changes at different wavelengths. Unprecedented gamma-ray flaring activity was observed during 2016 November-2017 February, with four major outbursts. A peak flux of (2158 +/- 63) x 10(-8) ph cm(-2) s(-1), corresponding to a luminosity of (2.2 +/- 0.1) x10(50) erg s(-1), was reached on 2016 December 28. These four gamma-ray outbursts have corresponding events in the near-infrared, optical, and UV bands, with the peaks observed at the same time. A general agreement between X-ray and gamma-ray activity is found. The gamma-ray flux variations show a general, strong correlation with the optical ones with no time lag between the two bands and a comparable variability amplitude. This gamma-ray/optical relationship is in agreement with the geometrical model that has successfully explained the low-energy flux and spectral behaviour, suggesting that the long-term flux variations are mainly due to changes in the Doppler factor produced by variations of the viewing angle of the emitting regions. The difference in behaviour between radio and higher energy emission would be ascribed to different viewing angles of the jet regions producing their emission.Bulgarian National Science Fund of the Ministry of Education and Science [DN 08-1/2016, DN 18-13/2017, KP-06-H28/3 (2018)]; Foundation for Research and Technology -Hellas; Max-Planck-Institut fur Extraterrestrische Physik; Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation [FR/217554/16]; Russian Science FoundationRussian Science Foundation (RSF) [17-12-01029]; Institute of Astronomy and Rozhen National Astronomical Observatory [176011, 176004, 176021]; Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia; DGAPA (Universidad Nacional Autonoma de M'exico)Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico; PAPIIT projectPrograma de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigacion e Innovacion Tecnologica (PAPIIT) [IN114917]; Smithsonian InstitutionSmithsonian Institution; Academia SinicaAcademia Sinica - Taiwan; NASA/Fermi Guest Investigator [NNX12AO93G, NNX15AU81G]; Bulgarian National Science Programme 'Young Scientists and Postdoctoral Students 2019', Bulgarian National Science Fund [DN18-10/2017]; National RI Roadmap Projects [DO1-157/28.08.2018, DO1-153/28.08.2018]; Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Bulgaria; Regional Government of the Aosta Valley - 'Research and Education' grants from Fondazione CRT; CONICYT project Basal [AFB-170002]; Russian Government Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University; National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNational Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA); Department of Energy in the United StatesUnited States Department of Energy (DOE); Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Institut National de Physique Nucleaire et de Physique des Particules in FranceCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS); Agenzia Spaziale ItalianaItalian Space Agency; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare in ItalyIstituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT); K. A. Wallenberg FoundationKnut & Alice Wallenberg Foundation; Swedish Research CouncilSwedish Research Council; Swedish National Space Board in Sweden; Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in ItalyIstituto Nazionale Astrofisica; Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales in FranceCentre National D'etudes Spatiales; United States Department of Energy (DOE) [DE-AC02-76SF00515]; National Aeronautics & Space Administration (NASA) [NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G, NNX14AQ89G]; National Science Foundation (NSF) [AST-0808050, AST-1109911]; NASA's Goddard Space Flight CenterThis item from the UA Faculty Publications collection is made available by the University of Arizona with support from the University of Arizona Libraries. If you have questions, please contact us at [email protected]