Multiple domains of TonEBP cooperate to stimulate transcription in response to hypertonicity.

Tonicity-responsive enhancer binding protein (TonEBP), also known as NFAT5, belongs to the Rel family of transcriptional activators. In the kidney medulla and thymus, TonEBP plays a major role in protecting renal cells and T cells from the deleterious effects of ambient hypertonicity. TonEBP is stimulated by hypertonicity via several pathways: increased expression of protein, nuclear translocation, and increased transactivation. In this study, we identified five domains of TonEBP involved in transactivation. The two conserved glutamine repeats were not involved in transactivation. There were three activation domains that could stimulate transcription independently. In addition, there were two modulation domains that potentiated the activity of the activation domains. One of the activation domains is unique to a splice isoform that is more active than others, indicating that alternative splicing can affect the activity of TonEBP. Another activation domain and one of the modulation domains were stimulated by hypertonicity. All the five domains acted in synergy in every combination. Although overall phosphorylation of TonEBP increased in response to hypertonicity, phosphorylation of the activation and modulation domains did not increase in isolation. In sum, TonEBP possesses far more elaborate domains involved in transactivation compared with other Rel proteins

Linking the Endoplasmic Reticulum to Parkinson’s Disease and Alpha-Synucleinopathy

Accumulation of misfolded proteins is a central paradigm in neurodegeneration. Because of the key role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in regulating protein homeostasis, in the last decade multiple reports implicated this organelle in the progression of Parkinson’s Disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative illnesses. In PD, dopaminergic neuron loss or more broadly neurodegeneration has been improved by overexpression of genes involved in the ER stress response. In addition, toxic alpha-synuclein (αS), the main constituent of proteinaceous aggregates found in tissue samples of PD patients, has been shown to cause ER stress by altering intracellular protein traffic, synaptic vesicles transport, and Ca2+ homeostasis. In this review, we will be summarizing evidence correlating impaired ER functionality to PD pathogenesis, focusing our attention on how toxic, aggregated αS can promote ER stress and cell death

Velusetrag rescues GI dysfunction, gut inflammation and dysbiosis in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease

: In patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), constipation is common, and it appears in a prodromal stage before the hallmark motor symptoms. The present study aimed to investigate whether Velusetrag, a selective 5‑HT4 receptor agonist, may be a suitable candidate to improve intestinal motility in a mouse model of PD. Five months old PrP human A53T alpha-synuclein transgenic (Tg) mice, which display severe constipation along with decreased colonic cholinergic transmission already at 3 months, were treated daily with the drug for 4 weeks. Velusetrag treatment reduced constipation by significantly stimulating both the longitudinal and circular-driven contractions and improved inflammation by reducing the level of serum and colonic IL1β and TNF-α and by decreasing the number of GFAP-positive glia cells in the colon of treated mice. No significant downregulation of the 5-HT4 receptor was observed but instead Velusetrag seemed to improve axonal degeneration in Tgs as shown by an increase in NF-H and VAChT staining. Ultimately, Velusetrag restored a well-balanced intestinal microbial composition comparable to non-Tg mice. Based on these promising data, we are confident that Velusetrag is potentially eligible for clinical studies to treat constipation in PD patients

Evaluation of groundwater contamination sources by plant protection products in hilly vineyards of Northern Italy

Abstract In Europe, 25% of groundwater has poor chemical status. One of the main stressors is agriculture, with nitrates and plant protection products (PPPs) causing failure in 18% and 6.5%, respectively, of groundwater bodies (by area). EU legislation for the placement of the PPPs on the market is one of the most stringent in the world. However, recent monitoring studies in hilly vineyards of Tidone Valley, north-west of Italy, show presence of PPPs used for grapevine cultivation in 15 out of 26 groundwater wells monitored, at values above the Environment Quality Standard (EQS) for groundwater (0.1 μg/L). However, no information about the contamination sources are available. Therefore, the objective of the present work is to evaluate the groundwater contamination sources by PPPs, in a small catchment with intensive viticulture, by collecting and integrating monitoring data, sub-surface water movement data and territorial characteristics. The results show that in wells used for PPP's mixture preparation and sprayer washing located at the top of hilly vineyards, with low slope and no water movement in the surrounding soil, the contamination is most likely from point sources. On the contrary, for wells located in a fenced area at the bottom of the hill, far away from vineyards and being used for drinking water production, the contamination is most likely from diffuse sources. Our results were used to raise awareness on groundwater contamination from PPPs among farmers in the study area; moreover a waterproof platform for sprayers washing, equipped with wastewater recovery and disposal system, able to avoid point-source contamination, was implemented in a local demonstration farm. Several demonstration activities were then organised with the farmers of the entire Valley in order to show its functionality and promote its diffuse use

Enteric α-synuclein impairs intestinal epithelial barrier through caspase-1-inflammasome signaling in Parkinson's disease before brain pathology

Bowel inflammation, impaired intestinal epithelial barrier (IEB), and gut dysbiosis could represent early events in Parkinson’s disease (PD). This study examined, in a descriptive manner, the correlation among enteric α-synuclein, bowel inflammation, impairments of IEB and alterations of enteric bacteria in a transgenic (Tg) model of PD before brain pathology. Human A53T α-synuclein Tg mice were sacrificed at 3, 6, and 9 months of age to evaluate concomitance of enteric inflammation, IEB impairments, and enteric bacterial metabolite alterations during the early phases of α-synucleinopathy. The molecular mechanisms underlying the interplay between α-synuclein, activation of immune/inflammatory responses and IEB alterations were investigated with in vitro experiments in cell cultures. Tg mice displayed an increase in colonic levels of IL-1β, TNF, caspase-1 activity and enteric glia activation since 3 months of age. Colonic TLR-2 and zonulin-1 expression were altered in Tg mice as compared with controls. Lipopolysaccharide levels were increased in Tg animals at 3 months, while fecal butyrate and propionate levels were decreased. Co-treatment with lipopolysaccharide and α-synuclein promoted IL-1β release in the supernatant of THP-1 cells. When applied to Caco-2 cells, the THP- 1-derived supernatant decreased zonulin-1 and occludin expression. Such an effect was abrogated when THP-1 cells were incubated with YVAD (caspase-1 inhibitor) or when Caco-2 were incubated with anakinra, while butyrate incubation did not prevent such decrease. Taken together, early enteric α-synuclein accumulation contributes to compromise IEB through the direct activation of canonical caspase-1-dependent inflammasome signaling. These changes could contribute both to bowel symptoms as well as central pathology.Bowel inflammation, impaired intestinal epithelial barrier (IEB), and gut dysbiosis could represent early events in Parkinson’s disease (PD). This study examined, in a descriptive manner, the correlation among enteric α-synuclein, bowel inflammation, impairments of IEB and alterations of enteric bacteria in a transgenic (Tg) model of PD before brain pathology. Human A53T α-synuclein Tg mice were sacrificed at 3, 6, and 9 months of age to evaluate concomitance of enteric inflammation, IEB impairments, and enteric bacterial metabolite alterations during the early phases of α-synucleinopathy. The molecular mechanisms underlying the interplay between α-synuclein, activation of immune/inflammatory responses and IEB alterations were investigated with in vitro experiments in cell cultures. Tg mice displayed an increase in colonic levels of IL-1β, TNF, caspase-1 activity and enteric glia activation since 3 months of age. Colonic TLR-2 and zonulin-1 expression were altered in Tg mice as compared with controls. Lipopolysaccharide levels were increased in Tg animals at 3 months, while fecal butyrate and propionate levels were decreased. Co-treatment with lipopolysaccharide and α-synuclein promoted IL-1β release in the supernatant of THP-1 cells. When applied to Caco-2 cells, the THP-1-derived supernatant decreased zonulin-1 and occludin expression. Such an effect was abrogated when THP-1 cells were incubated with YVAD (caspase-1 inhibitor) or when Caco-2 were incubated with anakinra, while butyrate incubation did not prevent such decrease. Taken together, early enteric α-synuclein accumulation contributes to compromise IEB through the direct activation of canonical caspase-1-dependent inflammasome signaling. These changes could contribute both to bowel symptoms as well as central pathology

Toxic properties of microsome-associated alpha-synuclein species in mouse primary neurons

α-synuclein (αS) is a small protein that self-aggregates into α-helical oligomer species and subsequently into larger insoluble amyloid fibrils that accumulate in intraneuronal inclusions during the development of Parkinson's disease. Toxicity of αS oligomers and fibrils has been long debated and more recent data are suggesting that both species can induce neurodegeneration. However while most of these data are based on differences in structure between oligomer and aggregates, often preassembled in vitro, the in vivo situation might be more complex and subcellular locations where αS species accumulate, rather than their conformation, might contribute to enhanced toxicity. In line with this observation, we have shown that αS oligomers and aggregates are associated with the endoplasmic reticulum/microsomes (ER/M) membrane in vivo and how accumulation of soluble αS oligomers at the ER/M level precedes neuronal degeneration in a mouse model of α-synucleinopathies. In this paper we took a further step, investigating the biochemical and functional features of αS species associated with the ER/M membrane. We found that by comparison with non-microsomal associated αS (P10), the ER/M-associated αS pool is a unique population of oligomers and aggregates with specific biochemical traits such as increased aggregation, N- and C-terminal truncations and phosphorylation at serine 129. Moreover, when administered to murine primary neurons, ER/M-associated αS species isolated from diseased A53T human αS transgenic mice induced neuronal changes in a time- and dose-dependent manner. In fact the addition of small amounts of ER/M-associated αS species from diseased mice to primary cultures induced the formation of beads-like structures or strings of fibrous αS aggregates along the neurites, occasionally covering the entire process or localizing at the soma level. By comparison treatment with P10 fractions from the same diseased mice resulted in the formation of scarce and small puncta only when administered at high amount. Moreover, increasing the amount of P100/M fractions obtained from diseased and, more surprisingly, from presymptomatic mice induced a significant level of neuronal death that was prevented when neurons were treated with ER/M fractions immunodepleted of αS high molecular weight (HMW) species. These data provide the first evidence of the existence of two different populations of αS HMW species in vivo, putting the spotlight on the association to ER/M membrane as a necessary step for the acquisition of αS toxic features

The impact of chest CT body composition parameters on clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients

We assessed the impact of chest CT body composition parameters on outcomes and disease severity at hospital presentation of COVID-19 patients, focusing also on the possible mediation of body composition in the relationship between age and death in these patients. Chest CT scans performed at hospital presentation by consecutive COVID-19 patients (02/27/2020-03/13/2020) were retrospectively reviewed to obtain pectoralis muscle density and total, visceral, and intermuscular adipose tissue areas (TAT, VAT, IMAT) at the level of T7-T8 vertebrae. Primary outcomes were: hospitalization, mechanical ventilation (MV) and/or death, death alone. Secondary outcomes were: C-reactive protein (CRP), oxygen saturation (SO2), CT disease extension at hospital presentation. The mediation of body composition in the effect of age on death was explored. Of the 318 patients included in the study (median age 65.7 years, females 37.7%), 205 (64.5%) were hospitalized, 68 (21.4%) needed MV, and 58 (18.2%) died. Increased muscle density was a protective factor while increased TAT, VAT, and IMAT were risk factors for hospitalization and MV/death. All these parameters except TAT had borderline effects on death alone. All parameters were associated with SO2 and extension of lung parenchymal involvement at CT; VAT was associated with CRP. Approximately 3% of the effect of age on death was mediated by decreased muscle density. In conclusion, low muscle quality and ectopic fat accumulation were associated with COVID-19 outcomes, VAT was associated with baseline inflammation. Low muscle quality partly mediated the effect of age on mortality.We assessed the impact of chest CT body composition parameters on outcomes and disease severity at hospital presentation of COVID-19 patients, focusing also on the possible mediation of body composition in the relationship between age and death in these patients. Chest CT scans performed at hospital presentation by consecutive COVID-19 patients (02/ 27/2020-03/13/2020) were retrospectively reviewed to obtain pectoralis muscle density and total, visceral, and intermuscular adipose tissue areas (TAT, VAT, IMAT) at the level of T7-T8 vertebrae. Primary outcomes were: hospitalization, mechanical ventilation (MV) and/or death, death alone. Secondary outcomes were: C-reactive protein (CRP), oxygen saturation (SO2), CT disease extension at hospital presentation. The mediation of body composition in the effect of age on death was explored. Of the 318 patients included in the study (median age 65.7 years, females 37.7%), 205 (64.5%) were hospitalized, 68 (21.4%) needed MV, and 58 (18.2%) died. Increased muscle density was a protective factor while increased TAT, VAT, and IMAT were risk factors for hospitalization and MV/death. All these parameters except TAT had borderline effects on death alone. All parameters were associated with SO2 and extension of lung parenchymal involvement at CT; VAT was associated with CRP. Approximately 3% of the effect of age on death was mediated by decreased muscle density. In conclusion, low muscle quality and ectopic fat accumulation were associated with COVID-19 outcomes, VAT was associated with baseline inflammation. Low muscle quality partly mediated the effect of age on mortality

Microbiome, Parkinson's Disease and Molecular Mimicry

Parkinson's Disease (PD) is typically classified as a neurodegenerative disease affecting the motor system. Recent evidence, however, has uncovered the presence of Lewy bodies in locations outside the CNS, in direct contact with the external environment, including the olfactory bulbs and the enteric nervous system. This, combined with the ability of alpha-synuclein (\u3b1S) to propagate in a prion-like manner, has supported the hypothesis that the resident microbial community, commonly referred to as microbiota, might play a causative role in the development of PD. In this article, we will be reviewing current knowledge on the importance of the microbiota in PD pathology, concentrating our investigation on mechanisms of microbiota-host interactions that might become harmful and favor the onset of PD. Such processes, which include the secretion of bacterial amyloid proteins or other metabolites, may influence the aggregation propensity of \u3b1S directly or indirectly, for example by favoring a pro-inflammatory environment in the gut. Thus, while the development of PD has not yet being associated with a unique microbial species, more data will be necessary to examine potential harmful interactions between the microbiota and the host, and to understand their relevance in PD pathogenesis

Subcellular localization of alpha-synuclein aggregates and their interaction with membranes

For more than a decade numerous evidence has been reported on the mechanisms of toxicity of α-synuclein (αS) oligomers and aggregates in α-synucleinopathies. These species were thought to form freely in the cytoplasm but recent reports of αS multimer conformations when bound to synaptic vesicles in physiological conditions, have raised the question about where αS aggregation initiates. In this review we focus on recent literature regarding the impact on membrane binding and subcellular localization of αS toxic species to understand how regular cellular function of αS contributes to pathology. Notably αS has been reported to mainly associate with specific membranes in neurons such as those of synaptic vesicles, ER/Golgi and the mitochondria, while toxic species of αS have been shown to inhibit, among others, neurotransmission, protein trafficking and mitochondrial function. Strategies interfering with αS membrane binding have shown to improve αS-driven toxicity in worms and in mice. Thus, a selective membrane binding that would result in a specific subcellular localization could be the key to understand how aggregation and pathology evolves, pointing out to αS functions that are primarily affected before onset of irreversible damage