Efeitos da administração sistêmica de guanosina em hiperamonemia aguda e caracterização comportamental, metabólica e eletroencefalográfica de um modelo cirúrgico de encefalopatia hepática aguda em roedores

A encefalopatia hepática é uma disfunção cerebral causada por insuficiência hepática que se manifesta através de um amplo espectro de anormalidades neurológicas e psiquiátricas, variando de alterações subclínicas à coma. Sua base fisiopatológica é complexa, envolvendo principalmente o aumento de amônia, glutamato, glutamina, estresse oxidativo e alteração no metabolismo cerebral. O nucleosídeo guanosina apresenta propriedades neuroprotetoras frente à excitotoxicidade glutamatérgica, estresse oxidativo e convulsão, tendo um potencial papel neuroprotetor em encefalopatia hepática e hiperamonemia. Nesta tese, apresentamos dois modelos experimentais. No primeiro, induzimos encefalopatia através da administração de acetato de amônia por via intraperitoneal em ratos. O grupo tratamento recebeu guanosina 20 minutos antes de receber acetato de amônia. Analisamos alterações hepáticas e sistêmicas, letalidade, análises neurológicas (normal, pré-coma, coma e morte) e eletroencefalográficas, níveis liquóricos de glutamato, glutamina, alanina e amônia, marcadores de estresse oxidativo no sistema nervoso central, captação de glutamato cortical, e atividade e imunoconteúdo cortical da enzima glutamina sintetase. A guanosina drasticamente reduziu a taxa de letalidade (50%) e duração de coma (30%). Outros desfechos foram melhora no traçado eletroencefalográfico, normalização de níveis liquóricos de glutamato, normalização na captação de glutamato e manutenção dos níveis normais de estresse oxidativo no sistema nervoso central. No segundo modelo, induzimos encefalopatia hepática em ratos através de hepatectomia subtotal (92%). Tivemos como objetivos aprofundar o conhecimento nos mecanismos da encefalopatia hepática e consequentes alterações no metabolismo cerebral. Avaliamos letalidade cirúrgica, alterações hepáticas e sistêmicas, atividade comportamental em teste de campo aberto, análise eletroencefalográfica, níveis liquóricos de aminoácidos, imunoconteúdo de transportadores glutamatérgicos, marcadores de estresse oxidativo, atividade das enzimas do ciclo dos ácidos tricarboxílicos e oxidação de glutamato, além de glutamina e glicose no sistema nervoso central. A cirurgia de hepatectomia subtotal provocou profundas alterações na análise eletroencefalográficas e no perfil comportamental dos animais, que apresentaram diminuição da locomoção. Também, houve alterações no metabolismo cerebral e em marcadores de estresse oxidativo compatíveis com aumento de proteólise cerebral (aumento de glutamina, glutamato e aminoácidos de cadeia ramificada), aumento de glicólise, aumento na oxidação cerebral de glutamato e diminuição na oxidação de glicose e lactato. Com dois modelos complementares, correlacionamos alterações neuroquímicas, metabólicas, eletroencefalográficas e comportamentais, aprofundando-nos na fisiopatologia da EH. Esta tese traz novas evidências para a utilização do nucleosídeo guanosina em tratamento de hiperamonemia e encefalopatia hepática.Hepatic encephalopathy is a brain dysfunction caused by liver failure that manifests itself through a broad spectrum of neurological and psychiatric abnormalities, ranging from subclinical symptoms to coma. Its pathophysiological basis is complex, involving mainly the increase of ammonia, glutamate, glutamine, oxidative stress and alteration in cerebral metabolism. The nucleoside guanosine has neuroprotective properties against glutamatergic excitotoxicity, oxidative stress and convulsion, and has a potential neuroprotective role in hepatic encephalopathy and hyperammonemia. In this thesis, we present two experimental models. In the first, we induced encephalopathy through the administration of ammonia acetate intraperitoneally in rats. The treatment group received guanosine 20 minutes before receiving ammonia acetate. We analyzed hepatic and systemic changes, lethality, neurological scale (normal, pre-coma, coma and death) and electroencephalographic analyzes, cerebrospinal fluid level of glutamate, glutamine, alanine and ammonia, oxidative stress markers in the central nervous system, cortical glutamate uptake and, finally, activity and immunocontent of the enzyme glutamine synthetase. Guanosine dramatically reduced lethality rate (50%) and coma duration (30%). Other outcomes were: improvement in electroencephalographic tracing, normalization of glutamate levels, normalization of glutamate uptake and maintenance of normal levels of oxidative stress in the central nervous system. In the second model, we induced hepatic encephalopathy in rats through subtotal hepatectomy (92%). We aimed to better understand the mechanisms of hepatic encephalopathy and consequent alterations in cerebral metabolism. We evaluated surgical lethality, hepatic and systemic alterations, behavioralal activity in the open field test, electroencephalographic analysis, cerebrospinal fluid levels, immunocontent of glutamatergic transporters, oxidative stress markers, activity of tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes and glutamate, glucose and lactate oxidation. Subtotal hepatectomy surgery caused profound alterations in the electroencephalographic analysis and in the behavioral profile of the animals, which showed a decrease in locomotion. Also, there were alterations in cerebral metabolism and markers of oxidative stress compatible with increased cerebral proteolysis (increase of glutamine, glutamate and branched-chain amino acids), increased glycolysis, increased cerebral oxidation of glutamate, and decreased glucose and lactate oxidation . With two complementary models, we correlate neurochemical, metabolic, electroencephalographic and behavioral changes, beeter comprehensing the physiopathology of hepatic encephalopathy. This thesis brings new evidence for the use of the nucleoside guanosine in the treatment of hyperammonemia and hepatic encephalopathy

Distinct metabolic profile according to the shape of the oral glucose tolerance test curve is related to whole glucose excursion : a cross-sectional study

Background: The shapes of the plasma glucose concentration curve during the oral glucose tolerance test are related to different metabolic risk profiles and future risk of type 2 DM. We sought to further analyze the relationship between the specific shapes and hyperglycemic states, the metabolic syndrome and hormones involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and to isolate the effect of the shape by adjusting for the area under the glucose curve. Methods: One hundred twenty one adult participants underwent a 2-h oral glucose tolerance test and were assigned to either the monophasic (n = 97) or the biphasic (n = 24) group based upon the rise and fall of their plasma glucose concentration. We evaluated anthropometric measures, blood pressure, lipid profile, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, glycated hemoglobin, insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function, C-peptide, glucagon, adiponectin and pancreatic polypeptide. Results: Subjects with monophasic curves had higher fasting and 2-h plasma glucose levels, while presenting lower insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function, HDL cholesterol, adiponectin and pancreatic polypeptide levels. Prediabetes and metabolic syndrome had a higher prevalence in this group. Glycated hemoglobin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, highsensitivity C-reactive protein and glucagon were not significantly different between groups. After adjusting for the area under the glucose curve, only the differences in the 1-h and 2-h plasma glucose concentrations and HDL cholesterol levels between the monophasic and biphasic groups remained statistically significant. Conclusions: Rates and intensity of metabolic dysfunction are higher in subjects with monophasic curves, who have lower insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function and a higher prevalence of prediabetes and metabolic syndrome. These differences, however, seem to be dependent on the area under the glucose curve

Effects of Veliparib on Microglial Activation and Functional Outcomes after Traumatic Brain Injury in the Rat and Pig.

The inflammation response induced by brain trauma can impair recovery. This response requires several hours to develop fully and thus provides a clinically relevant therapeutic window of opportunity. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors suppress inflammatory responses, including brain microglial activation. We evaluated delayed treatment with veliparib, a poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitor, currently in clinical trials as a cancer therapeutic, in rats and pigs subjected to controlled cortical impact (CCI). In rats, CCI induced a robust inflammatory response at the lesion margins, scattered cell death in the dentate gyrus, and a delayed, progressive loss of corpus callosum axons. Pre-determined measures of cognitive and motor function showed evidence of attentional deficits that resolved after three weeks and motor deficits that recovered only partially over eight weeks. Veliparib was administered beginning 2 or 24 h after CCI and continued for up to 12 days. Veliparib suppressed CCI-induced microglial activation at doses of 3 mg/kg or higher and reduced reactive astrocytosis and cell death in the dentate gyrus, but had no significant effect on delayed axonal loss or functional recovery. In pigs, CCI similarly induced a perilesional microglial activation that was attenuated by veliparib. CCI in the pig did not, however, induce detectable persisting cognitive or motor impairment. Our results showed veliparib suppression of CCI-induced microglial activation with a delay-to-treatment interval of at least 24 h in both rats and pigs, but with no associated functional improvement. The lack of improvement in long-term recovery underscores the complexities in translating anti-inflammatory effects to clinically relevant outcomes

Distinct metabolic profile according to the shape of the oral glucose tolerance test curve is related to whole glucose excursion : a cross-sectional study

Background: The shapes of the plasma glucose concentration curve during the oral glucose tolerance test are related to different metabolic risk profiles and future risk of type 2 DM. We sought to further analyze the relationship between the specific shapes and hyperglycemic states, the metabolic syndrome and hormones involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and to isolate the effect of the shape by adjusting for the area under the glucose curve. Methods: One hundred twenty one adult participants underwent a 2-h oral glucose tolerance test and were assigned to either the monophasic (n = 97) or the biphasic (n = 24) group based upon the rise and fall of their plasma glucose concentration. We evaluated anthropometric measures, blood pressure, lipid profile, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, glycated hemoglobin, insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function, C-peptide, glucagon, adiponectin and pancreatic polypeptide. Results: Subjects with monophasic curves had higher fasting and 2-h plasma glucose levels, while presenting lower insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function, HDL cholesterol, adiponectin and pancreatic polypeptide levels. Prediabetes and metabolic syndrome had a higher prevalence in this group. Glycated hemoglobin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, highsensitivity C-reactive protein and glucagon were not significantly different between groups. After adjusting for the area under the glucose curve, only the differences in the 1-h and 2-h plasma glucose concentrations and HDL cholesterol levels between the monophasic and biphasic groups remained statistically significant. Conclusions: Rates and intensity of metabolic dysfunction are higher in subjects with monophasic curves, who have lower insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function and a higher prevalence of prediabetes and metabolic syndrome. These differences, however, seem to be dependent on the area under the glucose curve

Distinct metabolic profile according to the shape of the oral glucose tolerance test curve is related to whole glucose excursion: a cross-sectional study

Abstract Background The shapes of the plasma glucose concentration curve during the oral glucose tolerance test are related to different metabolic risk profiles and future risk of type 2 DM. We sought to further analyze the relationship between the specific shapes and hyperglycemic states, the metabolic syndrome and hormones involved in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and to isolate the effect of the shape by adjusting for the area under the glucose curve. Methods One hundred twenty one adult participants underwent a 2-h oral glucose tolerance test and were assigned to either the monophasic (n = 97) or the biphasic (n = 24) group based upon the rise and fall of their plasma glucose concentration. We evaluated anthropometric measures, blood pressure, lipid profile, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, glycated hemoglobin, insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function, C-peptide, glucagon, adiponectin and pancreatic polypeptide. Results Subjects with monophasic curves had higher fasting and 2-h plasma glucose levels, while presenting lower insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function, HDL cholesterol, adiponectin and pancreatic polypeptide levels. Prediabetes and metabolic syndrome had a higher prevalence in this group. Glycated hemoglobin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and glucagon were not significantly different between groups. After adjusting for the area under the glucose curve, only the differences in the 1-h and 2-h plasma glucose concentrations and HDL cholesterol levels between the monophasic and biphasic groups remained statistically significant. Conclusions Rates and intensity of metabolic dysfunction are higher in subjects with monophasic curves, who have lower insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function and a higher prevalence of prediabetes and metabolic syndrome. These differences, however, seem to be dependent on the area under the glucose curve

Assessment at the single-cell level identifies neuronal glutathione depletion as both a cause and effect of ischemia-reperfusion oxidative stress.

Oxidative stress contributes to neuronal death in brain ischemia-reperfusion. Tissue levels of the endogenous antioxidant glutathione (GSH) are depleted during ischemia-reperfusion, but it is unknown whether this depletion is a cause or an effect of oxidative stress, and whether it occurs in neurons or other cell types. We used immunohistochemical methods to evaluate glutathione, superoxide, and oxidative stress in mouse hippocampal neurons after transient forebrain ischemia. GSH levels in CA1 pyramidal neurons were normally high relative to surrounding neuropil, and exhibited a time-dependent decrease during the first few hours of reperfusion. Colabeling for superoxide in the neurons showed a concurrent increase in detectable superoxide over this interval. To identify cause-effect relationships between these changes, we independently manipulated superoxide production and GSH metabolism during reperfusion. Mice in which NADPH oxidase activity was blocked to prevent superoxide production showed preservation of neuronal GSH content, thus demonstrating that neuronal GSH depletion is result of oxidative stress. Conversely, mice in which neuronal GSH levels were maintained by N-acetyl cysteine treatment during reperfusion showed less neuronal superoxide signal, oxidative stress, and neuronal death. At 3 d following ischemia, GSH content in reactive astrocytes and microglia was increased in the hippocampal CA1 relative to surviving neurons. Results of these studies demonstrate that neuronal GSH depletion is both a result and a cause of neuronal oxidative stress after ischemia-reperfusion, and that postischemic restoration of neuronal GSH levels can be neuroprotective

Assessment at the single-cell level identifies neuronal glutathione depletion as both a cause and effect of ischemia-reperfusion oxidative stress.

Oxidative stress contributes to neuronal death in brain ischemia-reperfusion. Tissue levels of the endogenous antioxidant glutathione (GSH) are depleted during ischemia-reperfusion, but it is unknown whether this depletion is a cause or an effect of oxidative stress, and whether it occurs in neurons or other cell types. We used immunohistochemical methods to evaluate glutathione, superoxide, and oxidative stress in mouse hippocampal neurons after transient forebrain ischemia. GSH levels in CA1 pyramidal neurons were normally high relative to surrounding neuropil, and exhibited a time-dependent decrease during the first few hours of reperfusion. Colabeling for superoxide in the neurons showed a concurrent increase in detectable superoxide over this interval. To identify cause-effect relationships between these changes, we independently manipulated superoxide production and GSH metabolism during reperfusion. Mice in which NADPH oxidase activity was blocked to prevent superoxide production showed preservation of neuronal GSH content, thus demonstrating that neuronal GSH depletion is result of oxidative stress. Conversely, mice in which neuronal GSH levels were maintained by N-acetyl cysteine treatment during reperfusion showed less neuronal superoxide signal, oxidative stress, and neuronal death. At 3 d following ischemia, GSH content in reactive astrocytes and microglia was increased in the hippocampal CA1 relative to surviving neurons. Results of these studies demonstrate that neuronal GSH depletion is both a result and a cause of neuronal oxidative stress after ischemia-reperfusion, and that postischemic restoration of neuronal GSH levels can be neuroprotective

Neuronal Glutathione Content and Antioxidant Capacity can be Normalized In Situ by N-acetyl Cysteine Concentrations Attained in Human Cerebrospinal Fluid.

N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) supports the synthesis of glutathione (GSH), an essential substrate for fast, enzymatically catalyzed oxidant scavenging and protein repair processes. NAC is entering clinical trials for adrenoleukodystrophy, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and other disorders in which oxidative stress may contribute to disease progression. However, these trials are hampered by uncertainty about the dose of NAC required to achieve biological effects in human brain. Here we describe an approach to this issue in which mice are used to establish the levels of NAC in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) required to affect brain neurons. NAC dosing in humans can then be calibrated to achieve these NAC levels in human CSF. The mice were treated with NAC over a range of doses, followed by assessments of neuronal GSH levels and neuronal antioxidant capacity in ex vivo brain slices. Neuronal GSH levels and antioxidant capacity were augmented at NAC doses that produced peak CSF NAC concentrations of ≥50 nM. Oral NAC administration to humans produced CSF concentrations of up to 10 μM, thus demonstrating that oral NAC administration can surpass the levels required for biological activity in brain. Variations of this approach may similarly facilitate and rationalize drug dosing for other agents targeting central nervous system disorders