Ecoturismo marino en el golfo de California y península de Baja California: tendencias de investigación y vacíos de información

Achieving equitable and sustainable ecotourism requires a wide range of multidisciplinary and cross-scale information, particularly given the growing scale of ecotourism operations and continuing governance and climate challenges. Ecosystems in Mexico’s Gulf of California and Baja California Peninsula support a thriving ecotourism industry that has quickly expanded over the last few decades, potentially outpacing research into current performance and future sustainable development opportunities. We develop and apply a formal literature review approach to characterize academic marine ecotourism literature, highlight key insights and identify research strengths and gaps, and thus analyse almost 50 publications for the region from 1994 to 2014. There has been a significant increase in the number of various types of publications; most (68%) focus on ecological themes, 25% on economics, and 7% on social aspects of human wellbeing. There are also trends towards research on specific species (e.g. mammals, fish and sharks) and in specific areas. A common theme in publication conclusions is the need for collaboration from all stakeholder groups. We discuss these findings, and address potential limitations of our method, with a view to informing sound policies to ensure that ecotourism can provide equitable benefits to local communities while incentivizing sustainable practices and nature conservation.El desarrollo equitativo y sostenible del ecoturismo debe considerar una amplia gama de información multidisciplinaria y a varias escalas, particularmente dada la creciente magnitud de las operaciones de ecoturismo y los retos de gobernanza y climáticos. Los ecosistemas en el golfo de California y península de Baja California en México mantienen a una próspera industria de ecoturismo que se ha expandido rápidamente a lo largo de las últimas décadas, posiblemente dejando atrás a la investigación respecto a sus operaciones actuales y las oportunidades para el desarrollo sostenible a futuro. Desarrollamos y aplicamos una revisión formal de literatura para caracterizar a las publicaciones académicas respecto al ecoturismo, señalar tendencias clave e identificar fortalezas y vacíos de investigación, analizando casi 50 publicaciones para la región desde 1994 al 2014. Ha habido un incremento significativo en la cantidad de publicaciones de varios tipos; la mayoría (68%) se enfocan en temas ecológicos, 25% en economía y 7% en aspectos sociales del bienestar humano. También existe una tendencia hacia investigación de ciertas especies (e.g. mamíferos, peces, tiburones) y en regiones específicas. Un tema común en las conclusiones de las publicaciones analizadas es la necesidad de colaboración por todos los grupos de actores. Discutimos estos resultados, y las posibles limitaciones de nuestro método, en el contexto de informar políticas adecuadas para asegurar que el ecoturismo pueda proveer beneficios equitativos a comunidades locales al mismo tiempo que se incentivan las prácticas sostenibles y la conservación de la naturaleza

The use of influential power in ocean governance

Ensuring inclusivity, especially the meaningful participation of diverse actors, is a key component of good governance. However, existing ocean governance frameworks have not yet achieved an equitable and fair playing field and are indeed often characterized by inequitable practices. In this perspective piece, we argue that one of the reasons for this lack of inclusion are the existing power frameworks and ways in which power is exercised within fora nominally intended to foster inclusion and cooperation. By focusing on four case studies of basic ocean governance processes, we explore how influential and interactive power is exercised in intergovernmental meetings, international conferences, and regional negotiations. These case studies demonstrate how specific exercises of power that undermine procedural inclusivity influence decision-making and the setting of agendas, and exclude important voices from ocean governance fora. This perspective piece contributes to the existing literature on power by highlighting how power is exercised within fundamental aspects of ocean governance. This paper merely scratches the surface, and more actions and research are needed to uncover and, more importantly, reverse deeply-rooted and self-perpetuating power structures in ocean governance

Environmental variability and fishing effects on the Pacific sardine fisheries in the Gulf of California

Small pelagic fish support some of the largest fisheries globally, yet there is an ongoing debate about the magnitude of the impacts of environmental processes and fishing activities on target species. We use a nonparametric, nonlinear approach to quantify these effects on the Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax) in the Gulf of California. We show that the effect of fishing pressure and environmental variability are comparable. Furthermore, when predicting total catches, the best models account for both drivers. By using empirical dynamic programming with average environmental conditions, we calculated optimal policies to ensure long-term sustainable fisheries. The first policy, the equilibrium maximum sustainable yield, suggests that the fishery could sustain an annual catch of ∼2.16 × 105 tonnes. The second policy with dynamic optimal effort, reveals that the effort from 2 to 4 years ago impacts the current maximum sustainable effort. Consecutive years of high effort require a reduction to let the stock recover. Our work highlights a new framework that embraces the complex processes that drive fisheries population dynamics yet produces simple and robust advice to ensure long-term sustainable fisheries.Published versio

The economic benefits of ecosystem-based marine recreation : implications for management and policy

Even as global fisheries are in decline, participation in ecosystem-based marine recreational activities (MRAs), defined here as recreational fishing, whale watching and diving, has increased around the world, adding a new dimension to human use of the marine ecosystem and another good reason to strengthen marine ecosystem management measures worldwide. After compiling available data for maritime countries, a meta-analysis was used to estimate the yearly global benefits of the largest MRAs. Results suggest that 121 million people a year participate in MRAs, generating 47 billion USD in expenditures and supporting one million jobs. Aside from offering the first global estimation of socioeconomic benefits from MRAs, this work provides insights on their drivers of participation and possible ecological impacts. In the case of whale watching, potential benefits are estimated for maritime countries that do not currently engage in this industry based on ecological and socio-economic criteria. Results suggest that whale watching could generate an additional 413 million USD in yearly revenue, supporting 5,700 additional jobs; this would bring the total potential benefits from the global whale watching industry to over 2.5 billion USD in yearly revenue, supporting 19,000 jobs. Recreational fishing is the largest MRA in the world, and can be a vital component of regional economies. Using available fisheries and ecosystem data, an Ecopath model was used to explore the ecological and economic effects of specific fisheries management measures in Baja California Sur, Mexico, particularly regarding longlining effort reductions and billfish bycatch. Results suggest that currently mandated policies will have little effect on marlin abundance in the area. The effects of ecosystem dynamics in an already overfished system must not be overlooked, as they can negate or even reverse desired outcomes from management. All results are discussed from an economic and conservation policy perspective, with emphasis on potential benefits and limitations.Science, Faculty ofResources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute forGraduat

The value of information for fisheries policy

For policy-makers and managers, knowing what information to collect is just as important as collecting information. I apply economics-based methods, including the value of information approach, to natural resource management in order to identify new optimal policies and priority areas for investment. Explicitly incorporating uncertainty is key to these methods, both in formally acknowledging alternative hypothesis and strategies, and for selecting policies that are most robust to uncertainty about natural and social systems. Given their differences in objectives and current challenges, I develop and apply methods to both developing and developed marine fisheries. In Mexico, for example, I estimate that total fish catch over the last fifty years could be almost twice that reported in official data. This ‘informal’ catch reduces economic benefits from fisheries output, including informal processing and sales that add less value to production. Based on current monitoring investment and informal catch rates, I estimate that this represents an almost US$1 billion annual loss in foregone economic impacts, that could be partially gained by an annual investment of US$100 million to increase formalization of current catch. The benefits of assessing information value are not limited to developing fisheries or “data-poor” contexts. Linking ecosystem models with economic data and frameworks, I estimate that the supporting service value of forage fishes as food for other fished species vastly outweighs their yearly landed value (in the Southern Baja California Peninsula, US$180 million compared to US$62 million). For the California Current, which includes Mexico, the US and Canada, I couple game-theoretic and ecosystem models and find that moving beyond single-species valuation supports arguments for sustainable fishing of forage fishes, and creates incentives for cooperative fishing strategies across a range of climate scenarios. Aside from developing new and broadly applicable methods and frameworks, the overarching finding of this work is that it is always beneficial to formally and openly acknowledge uncertainty and alternative management strategies in natural resource assessments. This allows us to provide robust advice to policy-makers given, and not stymied by, uncertainty.Science, Faculty ofResources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute forGraduat

A medio siglo de manejo pesquero en el noroeste de México, el futuro de la pesca como sistema socioecológico

Abstract: Fisheries management in northwestern Mexico must fully recognize fisheries as part of socio-ecological systems. This study describes the evolution and status of fisheries management, including the interaction dynamics of management institutions with conservation organizations, and highlights the opportunities and challenges involved in achieving ecological and social sustainability. In this context, recognizing artisanal fisheries as a social, as well as economic, activity would facilitate the evolution of governance and management systems towards greater alignment with social objectives. This approach allows us to fully address key issues, including the challenges that indigenous fishing communities face and the expected impacts of climate change. The scientific knowledge and experience accumulated over five decades provides a significant capacity to develop new strategies for transitioning towards greater system sustainability. The success of this process will depend on the ability to consolidate a unified vision of desired benefits, particularly for fishing communities.Resumen: El manejo pesquero en el noroeste de México debe reconocer plenamente a la pesca como parte de un sistema socioecológico. Este estudio describe la evolución y situación del manejo, incluyendo la dinámica entre instituciones de manejo y organizaciones conservacionistas, resaltando oportunidades y retos para alcanzar la sustentabilidad ecológica y social. En este contexto, el reconocimiento de la pesca artesanal como actividad social además de económica, facilitaría la evolución de los esquemas de gobernanza y manejo para empatarlos con los objetivos sociales. Ello permite abordar de lleno temas de suma importancia, incluyendo los retos de las comunidades pesqueras indígenas, o los impactos anticipados del cambio climático. El conocimiento científico y la experiencia acumulados en cinco décadas representan una gran capacidad para desarrollar estrategias novedosas para transitar hacia la sustentabilidad del sistema. El éxito de este proceso dependerá de la habilidad para consolidar una visión unificada sobre los beneficios deseados, en especial, para las comunidades pesqueras

Oil, Transitions, and the Blue Economy in Canada

Decisions about whether to include oil in blue economy plans can be controversial but also fundamental to the ability of these plans to transform (or not) business-as-usual in the oceans. This paper examines (a) how oil is sometimes included and justified in blue economy planning when its development is at odds with climate commitments and the need for just transitions away from fossil fuels, and (b) how oil could be included in blue economy planning, or transitions to blue economies and just energy transitions away from oil. We examine how tensions between sustainability/climate commitments and oil development impacts are resolved in practice, specifically by analyzing a particular approach to the blue economy that focuses on technology and innovation. The overlap of oil with renewable energy, specifically through technology, has become an important part of recent ocean and blue economy narratives in oil-producing nations and illustrates the contradictions inherent in ocean development discourse. We draw specifically on the case of Newfoundland and Labrador (NL), the only province in Canada with a mature offshore oil industry and thus the region most potentially impacted by decisions about whether to include oil in Canada’s blue economy. We argue that the blue economy approach to ocean governance being enacted in NL is currently being used as a form of legitimation for continuing the development of oil with no real transition plan away from it. Furthermore, we argue that blue economy plans must not only envision transitions to renewables but also explicitly and actively transitions away from oil to minimize environmental and social justice and equity issues at multiple scales. We end by highlighting some necessary conditions for how ocean economies that include oil can transition to sustainable and equitable blue economies