Influence of BMI and dietary restraint on self-selected portions of prepared meals in US women

The rise of obesity prevalence has been attributed in part to an increase in food and beverage portion sizes selected and consumed among overweight and obese consumers. Nevertheless, evidence from observations of adults is mixed and contradictory findings might reflect the use of small or unrepresentative samples. The objective of this study was i) to determine the extent to which BMI and dietary restraint predict self-selected portion sizes for a range of commercially available prepared savoury meals and ii) to consider the importance of these variables relative to two previously established predictors of portion selection, expected satiation and expected liking. A representative sample of female consumers (N = 300, range 18–55 years) evaluated 15 frozen savoury prepared meals. For each meal, participants rated their expected satiation and expected liking, and selected their ideal portion using a previously validated computer-based task. Dietary restraint was quantified using the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ-R). Hierarchical multiple regression was performed on self-selected portions with age, hunger level, and meal familiarity entered as control variables in the first step of the model, expected satiation and expected liking as predictor variables in the second step, and DEBQ-R and BMI as exploratory predictor variables in the third step. The second and third steps significantly explained variance in portion size selection (18% and 4%, respectively). Larger portion selections were significantly associated with lower dietary restraint and with lower expected satiation. There was a positive relationship between BMI and portion size selection (p = 0.06) and between expected liking and portion size selection (p = 0.06). Our discussion considers future research directions, the limited variance explained by our model, and the potential for portion size underreporting by overweight participants

Undervalued and ignored:Are humans poorly adapted to energy-dense foods?

In many species the capacity to accurately differentiate the energy density (kcal/g) of foods is critical because it greatly improves efficiency in foraging. In modern humans this ability remains intact and is expressed in a selective preference for types of fruit and vegetables that contain more calories. However, humans evolved consuming these low energy-dense foods (typically < 1.75 kcal/g) and it remains unclear whether they can also discriminate more energy-dense foods that now feature in modern Western diets. In two experiment participants (both N = 40) completed four tasks that assessed the ‘value’ of different sets of 22 foods that ranged in energy density (0.1 kcal/g–5.3 kcal/g and range 0.1 kcal/g to 6.2 kcal/g in Experiment 1 and 2, respectively). In Experiment 1 three measures (expected fullness, calorie estimation, and food choice), and in foods less than approximately 1.5 kcal/g (typically fruits and vegetables), the relationship between perceived value and energy density is linear. Above this, we observed clear compressive functions, indicating relative and progressive undervaluation of higher energy-dense foods. The fourth task (rated liking) failed to provide evidence for any relationship with energy density. In Experiment 2 the same pattern was replicated in measures of expected fullness, and in two different assessments of subjective calorie content. Consistent with the concept of ‘evolutionary discordance,’ this work indicates that modern human physiology is poorly adapted to evaluate foods that have a historically unusual (high) energy density. This has implications both for our understanding of how ‘modern’ energy-dense foods affect choice and energy intake, and for strategies aimed at removing calories from highly energy-rich foods

Oral processing behavior of drinkable, spoonable and chewable foods is primarily determined by rheological and mechanical food properties

Food oral processing plays a key role in sensory perception, consumer acceptance and food intake. However, little is known about the influence of physical food properties on oral processing of different type of food products. The primary objective of this study was to determine the influence of rheological and mechanical properties of foods on oral processing behavior of liquid (drinkable), semi-solid (spoonable) and solid foods (chewable). The secondary objective was to quantify the influence of product liking, frequency of consumption and familiarity on oral processing behavior. Rheological and mechanical properties of 18 commercially available foods were quantified. Parameters describing oral processing behavior such as sip and bite size, consumption time, eating rate, number of swallows, number of chews, cycle duration, and chewing rate were extracted from video recordings of 61 consumers. Subjects evaluated products’ liking, familiarity, and frequency of consumption using questionnaires. Consumers strongly adapted oral processing behavior with respect to bite size, consumption time, and eating rate to the rheological and mechanical properties of liquid, semi-solid and solid foods. This adaptation was observed within each food category. Chewing rate and chewing cycle duration of solid foods were not influenced by mechanical properties and remained relatively constant. Liking, familiarity, and consumption frequency showed to impact oral processing behavior, although to a lower degree than the rheological and mechanical properties of food. We conclude that the oral processing behaviors of liquid, semi-solid and solid foods are mainly determined by their rheological and mechanical properties.</p

Measuring satiation and satiety

This chapter summarizes the standardized procedures and best practices used in the measurement of satiation and satiety. The chapter outlines the key differences in the approaches used to measuring ad libitum intake, satiety duration and intensity, and the scaling of appetite sensations. Guidelines are provided on the appropriate test setup, subject selection, and considerations for test meal and appetite measures. There is a summary of the methods for linking behavioral measures of satiety to physiological parameters associated with food intake and an overview of new methods for quantifying satiety expectations

From perception to ingestion; the role of sensory properties in energy selection, eating behaviour and food intake

The sensory properties of foods and beverages play an important role in shaping our eating behaviours and the dietary patterns that influence health and well-being. Sensory evaluation has traditionally focused on quantifying sensations and relating these to food preferences. However, these perceptual signals are also influential in guiding energy intake beyond their role in preferences. Food odours, tastes and textures influence portion selection, oral-processing behaviours and the post-ingestive experience of satiety, and collectively inform the food intake patterns that underpin the diet. In addition to rating perceptual responses to foods, we are interested in exploring how eating behaviour and energy intake changes in response to the sensory properties experienced during the meal. Our studies have explored how a food's texture can be used to moderate eating rate (g/min) and meal size, and in both children and adults, and we have shown associations between faster eating rates, energy intake and body composition in children. By profiling the eating rates of a wide range of foods we have demonstrated how food texture can be used to slow food intake, and moderate energy consumption within a meal. Sensory cues can also be used to conceal underlying differences in energy density and our research has explored the impact of covert energy density manipulations in sensory and volume matched foods. Through this we have demonstrated that modifications to the energy density of the food have negligible impact on later energy intake when the sensory appeal is maintained. This creates an opportunity to use sensory properties to conceal energy density changes and use food textures to guide eating behaviours to support a satisfying product experience for fewer calories. Understanding how sensory properties influence both perception and ingestion can inform the development of successful behavioural and dietary strategies for better management of chronic conditions such as obesity and type-2 diabetes

Metabolic Impacts of Food Oral Processing

The metabolic impact of oral processing is often overlooked in food design and when considering diet and lifestyle interventions to improve health and post-prandial metabolism. Food oral processing is the first step in the digestion and absorption of nutrients and informs a cascade of neuroendocrine and metabolic responses that occur post-ingestion. A food's physical, mechanical and lubricant properties inform how we adapt the duration and extent of oral processing during mastication, which, in turn, influences the incorporation of saliva and the surface area of the bolus. The properties of a food bolus at swallow can alter digestive kinetics and the rate and extent of post-prandial changes in the plasma concentrations of nutrients, in addition to the endocrine signals linked to feelings of satiety during the post-meal period. This chapter summarizes our current understanding of the metabolic impact of oral processing from acute feeding trials, long-term interventions and population-based studies. We focus on the impact of oral processing on post-prandial glucose and insulin responses, and energy intake and satiety, as they relate to body weight and metabolic health. We describe the impact of oral processing on gastric emptying and diet-induced thermogenesis. We provide an overview of the potential applications of these findings to food design and eating interventions that can be used to promote healthier diets and food intake behaviour. A better understanding of the metabolic impact of oral processing behaviour for specific consumer groups could assist in steering sensory perception, food choice and eating behaviour to promote healthier metabolic responses

Interrelations Between Food Form, Texture, and Matrix Influence Energy Intake and Metabolic Responses

Purpose of Review: Nutrition often focuses on food composition, yet differences in food form, texture, and matrix influence energy intake and metabolism. This review outlines how these attributes of food impact oral processing, energy intake, and metabolism. Recent Findings: Food form has a well-established impact on intake, where liquids are consumed more than solids and semi-solids. For solids, texture properties like thickness, hardness, and lubrication, and geometrical properties like size and shape influence oral processing, eating rate, and intake. Food matrix integrity can influence nutrient and energy absorption and is strongly influenced by food processing. Summary: Food texture and matrix play important roles in modulating energy intake and absorption. Future research needs to consider the often overlooked role of texture and matrix effects on energy and metabolic responses to composite foods and meals. Research is needed to understand how processing impacts macro- and micro-structure of food and its long-term impact on energy balance and health

Influence of Sensory Properties in Moderating Eating Behaviors and Food Intake

Sensory properties inform likes and dislikes, but also play an important functional role in guiding food choice and intake behavior. Odors direct food choice and stimulate sensory-specific appetites and taste helps to anticipate calorie and nutrient content of food. Food textures moderate eating rate and the energy consumed to satiation and post-ingestive metabolism. We summarize how sensory cues moderate intake, and highlight opportunities to apply sensory approaches to improve dietary behavior. Salt, sweet and savory taste influence liking, but also influence energy intake to fullness, with higher taste intensity and duration linked to lower intake. Psycho-physical studies show it is relatively easy to rank taste intensities at different concentrations but more challenging to discriminate fat contents, and fat discrimination declines further when combined with high-taste intensity. Fat has low impact on sensory intensity, but makes significant contributions to energy content. Combinations of high taste and fat-content can promote passive energy over-consumption, and adding fat also increases energy intake rate (kcals/min), reducing opportunities to orally meter consumption. Consumers adapt their oral processing behaviors to a foods texture, which can influence the rate and extent of energy intake. Understanding how texture influences eating behaviors and bolus formation, affords new opportunities to impact eating rate, energy intake and metabolic response to food. Food formulation has traditionally focused on composition and sensory appeal. Future research needs to consider the role of sensory properties in moderating consumer interaction with their food environment, and how they influence calorie selection, and shape our eating behaviors and intake

Application of food texture to moderate oral processing behaviors and energy intake

Background: Many studies have shown that changes in food textures are able to reduce food intake via longer oral processing and slower eating rate, without a resultant decrease in food liking or post-meal fullness. Scope and approach: The current paper consolidates findings from to date and summarizes current knowledge on (i) how specific food textures influence oral processing, and (ii) how oral processing influence eating rate and food intake. An overview is presented of potential food texture based applications for future opportunities to moderate energy intake. Key findings and conclusions: Oral processing characteristics that particularly influence both eating rate and food intake are bite sizes and chewing behaviour. Increasing the hardness and elasticity of solid foods has been shown to increase chews per bite and decrease bite sizes to reduce eating rate and food intake. By contrast, increasing lubrication can stimulate faster eating rates by reducing the chews per bite required to agglomerate a swallowable bolus. The shape and size of foods can be designed to either directly influence the bite sizes or to manipulate surface area and moisture uptake to influence bolus formation and through this, eating rate and food intake. For semi-solid foods, manipulations in viscosity and particle sizes have been shown to affect eating rate and intake. The current evidence supports a new and largely underutilised opportunity to apply texture manipulations together with decreasing energy densities to moderate the flow of calories through our diets and to support better long-term energy intake control.</p

The Importance of Food Processing and Eating Behavior in Promoting Healthy and Sustainable Diets

Numerous association studies and findings from a controlled feeding trial have led to the suggestion that "processed"foods are bad for health. Processing technologies and food formulation are essential for food preservation and provide access to safe, nutritious, affordable, appealing and sustainable foods for millions globally. However, food processing at any level can also cause negative health consequences that result from thermal destruction of vitamins; formation of toxins such as acrylamide; or excessive intakes of salt, sugar, and fat. Research on ultraprocessed foods centers on food composition and formulation. In addition, many modern food formulations can have poor nutritional quality and higher energy density. We outline the role of processing in the provision of a safe and secure food supply and explore the characteristics of processed foods that promote greater energy intake. Despite the potential for negative health effects, food processing and formulation represent an opportunity to apply the latest developments in technology and ingredient innovation to improve the food supply by creating foods that decrease the risk of overeating