Structural and Functional Analysis of Laninamivir and its Octanoate Prodrug Reveals Group Specific Mechanisms for Influenza NA Inhibition

The 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic (pH1N1) led to record sales of neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors, which has contributed significantly to the recent increase in oseltamivir-resistant viruses. Therefore, development and careful evaluation of novel NA inhibitors is of great interest. Recently, a highly potent NA inhibitor, laninamivir, has been approved for use in Japan. Laninamivir is effective using a single inhaled dose via its octanoate prodrug (CS-8958) and has been demonstrated to be effective against oseltamivir-resistant NA in vitro. However, effectiveness of laninamivir octanoate prodrug against oseltamivir-resistant influenza infection in adults has not been demonstrated. NA is classified into 2 groups based upon phylogenetic analysis and it is becoming clear that each group has some distinct structural features. Recently, we found that pH1N1 N1 NA (p09N1) is an atypical group 1 NA with some group 2-like features in its active site (lack of a 150-cavity). Furthermore, it has been reported that certain oseltamivir-resistant substitutions in the NA active site are group 1 specific. In order to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness of laninamivir, we utilized recombinant N5 (typical group 1), p09N1 (atypical group 1) and N2 from the 1957 pandemic H2N2 (p57N2) (typical group 2) to carry out in vitro inhibition assays. We found that laninamivir and its octanoate prodrug display group specific preferences to different influenza NAs and provide the structural basis of their specific action based upon their novel complex crystal structures. Our results indicate that laninamivir and zanamivir are more effective against group 1 NA with a 150-cavity than group 2 NA with no 150-cavity. Furthermore, we have found that the laninamivir octanoate prodrug has a unique binding mode in p09N1 that is different from that of group 2 p57N2, but with some similarities to NA-oseltamivir binding, which provides additional insight into group specific differences of oseltamivir binding and resistance

From L-Dopa to Dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde: A Toxic Biochemical Pathway Plays a Vital Physiological Function in Insects

One protein in Aedes aegypti, classified into the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD) family based on extremely high sequence homology (∼70%) with dopa decarboxylase (Ddc), was biochemically investigated. Our data revealed that this predicted AAAD protein use L-dopa as a substrate, as does Ddc, but it catalyzes the production of 3,4-dihydroxylphenylacetaldehyde (DHPAA) directly from L-dopa and apparently has nothing to do with the production of any aromatic amine. The protein is therefore named DHPAA synthase. This subsequently led to the identification of the same enzyme in Drosophila melanogaster, Anopheles gambiae and Culex quinquefasciatus by an initial prediction of putative DHPAA synthase based on sequence homology and subsequent verification of DHPAA synthase identity through protein expression and activity assays. DHPAA is highly toxic because its aldehyde group readily reacts with the primary amino groups of proteins, leading to protein crosslinking and inactivation. It has previously been demonstrated by several research groups that Drosophila DHPAA synthase was expressed in tissues that produce cuticle materials and apparent defects in regions of colorless, flexible cuticular structures have been observed in its gene mutants. The presence of free amino groups in proteins, the high reactivity of DHPAA with the free amino groups, and the genetically ascertained function of the Drosophila DHPAA synthase in the formation of colorless, flexible cuticle, when taken together, suggest that mosquito and Drosophila DHPAA synthases are involved in the formation of flexible cuticle through their reactive DHPAA-mediated protein crosslinking reactions. Our data illustrate how a seemingly highly toxic pathway can serve for an important physiological function in insects

Enhancing carbohydrate repartitioning into lipid and carotenoid by disruption of microalgae starch debranching enzyme

Light/dark cycling is an inherent condition of outdoor microalgae cultivation, but is often unfavorable for lipid accumulation. This study aims to identify promising targets for metabolic engineering of improved lipid accumulation under outdoor conditions. Consequently, the lipid-rich mutant Chlamydomonas sp. KOR1 was developed through light/dark-conditioned screening. During dark periods with depressed CO2 fixation, KOR1 shows rapid carbohydrate degradation together with increased lipid and carotenoid contents. KOR1 was subsequently characterized with extensive mutation of the ISA1 gene encoding a starch debranching enzyme (DBE). Dynamic time-course profiling and metabolomics reveal dramatic changes in KOR1 metabolism throughout light/dark cycles. During light periods, increased flux from CO2 through glycolytic intermediates is directly observed to accompany enhanced formation of small starch-like particles, which are then efficiently repartitioned in the next dark cycle. This study demonstrates that disruption of DBE can improve biofuel production under light/dark conditions, through accelerated carbohydrate repartitioning into lipid and carotenoid

Novel Immunodominant Peptide Presentation Strategy: a Featured HLA-A*2402-Restricted Cytotoxic T-Lymphocyte Epitope Stabilized by Intrachain Hydrogen Bonds from Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Protein▿ †

Antigenic peptides recognized by virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC; or human leukocyte antigen [HLA] in humans) molecules, and the peptide selection and presentation strategy of the host has been studied to guide our understanding of cellular immunity and vaccine development. Here, a severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) nucleocapsid (N) protein-derived CTL epitope, N1 (QFKDNVILL), restricted by HLA-A*2402 was identified by a series of in vitro studies, including a computer-assisted algorithm for prediction, stabilization of the peptide by co-refolding with HLA-A*2402 heavy chain and β2-microglobulin (β2m), and T2-A24 cell binding. Consequently, the antigenicity of the peptide was confirmed by enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT), proliferation assays, and HLA-peptide complex tetramer staining using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from donors who had recovered from SARS donors. Furthermore, the crystal structure of HLA-A*2402 complexed with peptide N1 was determined, and the featured peptide was characterized with two unexpected intrachain hydrogen bonds which augment the central residues to bulge out of the binding groove. This may contribute to the T-cell receptor (TCR) interaction, showing a host immunodominant peptide presentation strategy. Meanwhile, a rapid and efficient strategy is presented for the determination of naturally presented CTL epitopes in the context of given HLA alleles of interest from long immunogenic overlapping peptides

Mechanism-based tuning of insect 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde synthase for synthetic bioproduction of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids

Previous studies have utilized monoamine oxidase (MAO) and L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine decarboxylase (DDC) for microbe-based production of tetrahydropapaveroline (THP), a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid (BIA) precursor to opioid analgesics. In the current study, a phylogenetically distinct Bombyx mori 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde synthase (DHPAAS) is identified to bypass MAO and DDC for direct production of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde (DHPAA) from L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA). Structure-based enzyme engineering of DHPAAS results in bifunctional switching between aldehyde synthase and decarboxylase activities. Output of dopamine and DHPAA products is fine-tuned by engineered DHPAAS variants with Phe79Tyr, Tyr80Phe and Asn192His catalytic substitutions. Balance of dopamine and DHPAA products enables improved THP biosynthesis via a symmetrical pathway in Escherichia coli. Rationally engineered insect DHPAAS produces (R,S)-THP in a single enzyme system directly from L-DOPA both in vitro and in vivo, at higher yields than that of the wild-type enzyme. However, DHPAAS-mediated downstream BIA production requires further improvement