Understanding the evolution of the silicon electrode SEI through model lithium silicate thin film layers

Development of higher capacity anodes in lithium ion batteries for use in electric vehicles is necessary to further enhance their energy density. Silicon anodes are being considered for these lithium ion batteries due to their high specific capacity. One drawback to silicon anodes is the formation of an unstable solid electrolyte interface (SEI). A major cause of this instability is due to silicon anode volume expansion of up to 300% during cycling. To this end, there remains much to learn about the chemical reactions occurring at the silicon surface. Because of this expansion, composite Si-graphite electrodes exhibit poor cycling performance, as well as significant capacity loss even at open circuit, “shelf” conditions in the absence of electrochemical cycling. Implicated in these processes is the role of the solid/electrolyte interphase (SEI) region between the Si solid material and the electrolyte systems that forms upon initial exposure to the electrolyte, and evolves over time. Thermodynamic arguments suggest that the formation of lithium silicate (LiSixOy) phases from the decomposition of the electrolyte at the silicon electrochemical potential play a role in SEI formation and evolution. To better understand the evolution of the SEI layer and the nature of silicates formed prior to any cycling of the silicon anode and how it impacts the performance of the silicon anode, model SEI layers were deposited on silicon thin films using RF magnetron co-sputtering. Thin film chemistries from SiO2 to Li3SiOx were synthesized to model the proposed lithiation of the oxide layer during the first cycle. The composition and structure of these thin films prior to exposure to electrolyte were analyzed. In order to observe the chemical reactivity of these model silicate thin films, they were soaked in 1.2M LiPF6 in EC:EMC 3:7 wt% electrolyte for up to 3 days, removed, rinsed and studied using Attenuated Total Reflectance Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR IR), X-ray Photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Focused Ion Beam Cross-sections (FIB CS). Half cells with these same silicate model films were cycled to observe any differences in SEI formation or cell performance during electrochemical cycling. Please click Additional Files below to see the full abstract

Rational Redesign of Glucose Oxidase for Improved Catalytic Function and Stability

Glucose oxidase (GOx) is an enzymatic workhorse used in the food and wine industries to combat microbial contamination, to produce wines with lowered alcohol content, as the recognition element in amperometric glucose sensors, and as an anodic catalyst in biofuel cells. It is naturally produced by several species of fungi, and genetic variants are known to differ considerably in both stability and activity. Two of the more widely studied glucose oxidases come from the species Aspergillus niger (A. niger) and Penicillium amagasakiense (P. amag.), which have both had their respective genes isolated and sequenced. GOx from A. niger is known to be more stable than GOx from P. amag., while GOx from P. amag. has a six-fold superior substrate affinity (KM) and nearly four-fold greater catalytic rate (kcat). Here we sought to combine genetic elements from these two varieties to produce an enzyme displaying both superior catalytic capacity and stability. A comparison of the genes from the two organisms revealed 17 residues that differ between their active sites and cofactor binding regions. Fifteen of these residues in a parental A. niger GOx were altered to either mirror the corresponding residues in P. amag. GOx, or mutated into all possible amino acids via saturation mutagenesis. Ultimately, four mutants were identified with significantly improved catalytic activity. A single point mutation from threonine to serine at amino acid 132 (mutant T132S, numbering includes leader peptide) led to a three-fold improvement in kcat at the expense of a 3% loss of substrate affinity (increase in apparent KM for glucose) resulting in a specify constant (kcat/KM) of 23.8 (mM−1 · s−1) compared to 8.39 for the parental (A. niger) GOx and 170 for the P. amag. GOx. Three other mutant enzymes were also identified that had improvements in overall catalysis: V42Y, and the double mutants T132S/T56V and T132S/V42Y, with specificity constants of 31.5, 32.2, and 31.8 mM−1 · s−1, respectively. The thermal stability of these mutants was also measured and showed moderate improvement over the parental strain

Intrinsic chemical reactivity of solid-electrolyte interphase components in silicon-lithium alloy anode batteries probed by FTIR spectroscopy

The chemical reactivity of silicon surface species with LiPF6/carbonate electrolyte are detailed via FTIR spectroscopy and verified by MD/DFPD simulations

Kinetic rate parameters of parental and mutant GOx stains for D (+) glucose oxidation as determined via initial rate electrochemical measurements.

1<p>± values are 95% confidence intervals from a non-linear least squares regression fit of initial rate data to the Michaelis-Menton equation.</p>2<p><i>k</i>_cat defined per mol native GOx.</p>3<p>Negative change in <i>K</i>_M denotes higher affinity for substrate.</p>4<p>Values taken from reference 14.</p

View of amino acid mutations that enhanced GOx kinetic activity in relation to the FAD cofactor: T132S, T56V, and V42T.

<p>The monomer protein is shown as ribbons. The FAD group and mutated amino acid residues are shown as space-filling models. The FAD binding peptide region, containing amino acids T56V and V42T, is colored red.</p

Thermal stability of parental and mutant GOx stains incubated at 50 °C.

1<p>Error corresponds to the standard deviation of GOx kinetic rate measurements performed in triplicate.</p>2<p>Correlation coefficients obtained from an exponential least squares regression fit of GOx kinetic rates measured in triplicate vs. time.</p

Comparison between Amplex Red and ABTS GOx activity assays.

<p>A) Amplex Red and B) ABTS assay absorbance vs. GOx concentration standard curves. Glucose concentration was 50 mM. Error bars are the standard deviation of 3 independent measurements. Comparison of activity assay results for mutant GOx stains using C) Amplex Red or D) ABTS assay. Each 96 well plate contained 96 different mutant GOx samples that were loaded in identical wells between plates.</p

Western blot of Ni-NTA affinity purified yeast culture media.

<p>Bands observed via anti-V5 epitope-AP antibody labeling. Lane 1: Sample from culture with induced GOx expression; Lane 2: Sample from uninduced culture.</p

Structural comparison of the GOx FAD adduct (1cf3) with the FAD-peroxy adduct of choline oxidase (2jbv).

<p>Panel A has illustrations of GOx at two different angles. Panel B illustrates the choline oxidase FAD-peroxy adduct at two different angles. Thr 132 (GOx) and its homologous amino acid Ile 103 (choline oxidase) are labeled. The peroxy adduct is colored green. Other oxygens are red, carbons are teal, nitrogens are blue, and phosphorous atoms are tan.</p

A cartoon view of GOx monomer, with the protein shown as ribbons and the FAD groups shown as space-filling models.

<p>Residues that were targeted for mutagenesis are also shown as space-filling models and labeled. The numbering used is from the <i>A. niger</i> protein sequence and includes the 22 amino acid leader peptide. Residue N536 is obscured by residues T132, R534, and T537.</p