The observed m-σ relations imply that super-massive black holes grow by cold chaotic accretion

We argue that current observations of M-σ relations for galaxies can be used to constrain theories of super-massive black holes (SMBHs) feeding. In particular, assuming that SMBH mass is limited only by the feedback on the gas that feeds it, we show that SMBHs fed via a planar galaxy-scale gas flow, such as a disk or a bar, should be much more massive than their counterparts fed by quasi-spherical inflows. This follows from the relative inefficiency of active galactic nucleus feedback on a flattened inflow. We find that even under the most optimistic conditions for SMBH feedback on flattened inflows, the mass at which the SMBH expels the gas disk and terminates its own growth is a factor of several higher than the one established for quasi-spherical inflows. Any beaming of feedback away from the disk and any disk self-shadowing strengthen this result further. Contrary to this theoretical expectation, recent observations have shown that SMBHs in pseudobulge galaxies (which are associated with barred galaxies) are typically under- rather than overmassive when compared with their classical bulge counterparts at a fixed value of σ. We conclude from this that SMBHs are not fed by large (100 pc to many kpc) scale gas disks or bars, most likely because such planar flows are turned into stars too efficiently to allow any SMBH growth. Based on this and other related observational evidence, we argue that most SMBHs grow by chaotic accretion of gas clouds with a small and nearly randomly distributed direction of angular momentum

Characteristics of those with no childhood maltreatment† and those abused or neglected (%).

<p>Averaged across 10 imputed datasets †No neglect at 7y or 11y and no abuse</p><p>*p<0.05</p><p>** p<0.001 for each child maltreatment group vs non-maltreated</p><p># <1/w</p><p>Characteristics of those with no childhood maltreatment† and those abused or neglected (%).</p

Difference in mean BMI (kg/m²) and OR for obesity (95% CIs) from 7 to 50y by physical abuse^† in males and females.

<p>Footnotes: ^† participant report in adulthood (45y) that they had been physically abused by a parent during their childhood before 16y, i.e. punched, kicked or hit or beaten with an object, or needed medical treatment.</p

Associations (OR, 95% confidence intervals) for work time sitting and television-viewing with metabolic syndrome and hypertension.

<p>*No adjustment for BMI, as central adiposity is a component of metabolic syndrome.</p>†<p>OR for an increase per category of television-viewing/sitting at work.</p>‡<p>Adjusted for: moderate-vigorous leisure activity frequency, smoking, social class at birth and in adulthood, education level, birth-weight and longstanding illness limiting daily activity; for women, additional adjustment for menopausal status, HRT and OC use; for hypertension, additional adjustment for total and HDL-cholesterol.</p>§<p>Consumption of chips and sweets/chocolates at 42 yr and alcohol at 45 yr.</p

Characteristics of the 1958 British birth cohort study.

<p>Table based on observed data, N varies due to missing data.</p><p>*Neglect at 7y and/or 11y (if one missing, other age used).</p><p>^† IQR = inter-quartile range</p><p>^‡ defined as BMI≥20.63 at 7y, 25.10 at 11y, 28.88kg/m² at 16y for males; ≥20.51, 25.42 and 29.4kg/m² respectively in females; in adulthood BMI≥30kg/m².</p><p>Characteristics of the 1958 British birth cohort study.</p

Difference in mean zBMI by childhood physical abuse^† from fully adjusted models, males and females*.

<p>Footnotes: ^† participant report in adulthood (45y) that they had been physically abused by a parent during their childhood before 16y, i.e. punched, kicked or hit or beaten with an object, or needed medical treatment. *Difference in mean zBMI by childhood physical abuse estimated from fully adjusted models; showing equivalent differences in BMI (kg/m²) at 7y, 33y and 45y. The positive linear association of zBMI gain with age and physical abuse is given as ~0.006/y (males) and ~0.007/y (females) in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0119985#pone.0119985.t004" target="_blank">Table 4</a>.</p

Mean % change (95% CI) in biomarker level, for men, per category increase in television-viewing (a) and sitting at work (b).

<p>Footnote: SBP = systolic blood pressure; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; HbA1c = glycated haemoglobin; CRP = C-reactive protein. *Quarter % change in CRP level per category increase in sedentary behaviour. Corresponding values for a % change in CRP per category increase in (a) television-viewing: 10.88% (95% CI: 7.2%, 14.57%), 5.73% (1.99%, 9.47%) and 1.83% (−1.72%, 5.37%) and (b) sitting at work: −1.01% (−3.80%, 1.78%), 1.47% (−1.57%, 4.51%) and −0.07% (−2.93%, 2.79%) for unadjusted”, “adjusted” and “adjusted+BMI+Diet” respectively. N varies from 3,861 to 3,024 due to variation in missing data. Model “Adjusted” includes: moderate-vigorous leisure activity frequency, smoking, social class at birth and in adulthood, education level, birth-weight and longstanding illness limiting daily activity; for total, HDL and LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, HbA1c,fibrinogen and CRP additional adjustment for hypertension; for SBP, DBP, HbA1c, fibrinogen and CRP additional adjustment for total and HDL-cholesterol. Model “Adjusted+Diet+BMI” includes: all factors mentioned above plus consumption of chips, sweets/chocolates, alcohol, and BMI.</p

Mean differences in zBMI (95% CIs) at 7y and rate of change in zBMI (7–50y) by childhood maltreatment, estimated using multilevel models.

<p>†Mean difference in rate of change (i.e. additional rate of change associated with maltreatment) is represented by the coefficient for a linear age interaction term (and for 7y/11y neglect only it is a linear function of age: i.e. coefficient for interaction with age +2*(coefficient for interaction with age²)* age (where age is centred at 7y)</p><p>*A: adjusted for: social class at birth (or 7y if missing), identified from maternal reports, based on Registrar General’s classification of the father’s occupation: I&II (professional /managerial), IIINM (skilled non-manual), IIIM (skilled manual) and IV&V (semi-unskilled manual, including single-mother households), maternal smoking during pregnancy: smoking ≥1 cigarette/day after the 4th month of pregnancy recorded shortly after birth, mean parental zBMI: 1969 reported maternal and paternal BMI, standardised using internally derived standard deviation scores, mean parental z-BMI calculated as the average z-BMI of both parents (where missing, either mother or father zBMI was used), 7y amenities: having no access or sharing amenities (bathroom, indoor lavatory, and hot water supply), 7y household overcrowding: defined as ≥1.5 persons/room, 7y housing tenure: owner-occupied, council rented, private rental or other, birthweight: measured in ounces and converted into grams, gestational age (in weeks) estimated from the date of the mothers’ last menstrual period, breastfeeding reported in 1965 by the mother, categorized as ‘never’ or ‘ever’ breastfed, 7y ill health identified from medical examiner’s report of major handicap or disfiguring condition.</p><p>** A+B: adjusted as for A above + pubertal timing from parental report at 16y for age of voice change for males (three groups < = 12, 13–14, > = 15y) and menarche for females (five groups < = 11 to > = 15y), time-varying concurrent employment (in paid employed, others) 23–50y; educational qualifications by 50y (five groups: none, some, O-levels, A-levels or degree level); time-varying concurrent smoking 23–50y (non-smoker/ex-smoker/smoker); time-varying concurrent leisure-time physical activity frequency 23–50y (<1 vs ≥1 /week) which identifies those at elevated risk of all-cause mortality [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0119985#pone.0119985.ref044" target="_blank">44</a>,<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0119985#pone.0119985.ref045" target="_blank">45</a>]; time-varying concurrent drinking 23–50y (males: non/infrequent drinker, 1–21, ≥22 units/week; females: non/infrequent drinker, 1–14, ≥15 units/week)</p><p>*** A+B+C: adjusted as above + time-varying depressive symptoms 23–50y (indicated by the 15 psychological items of the Malaise Inventory (8-items available at 50y were pro-rated to the 15 item scale used at other ages))</p><p>Mean differences in zBMI (95% CIs) at 7y and rate of change in zBMI (7–50y) by childhood maltreatment, estimated using multilevel models.</p

Characteristics of 45 y participants in paid employment and with a measure of television-viewing and sitting at work.

<p>Data not imputed and biomarker levels not corrected for medication.</p><p>CVD = cardiovascular disease; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; HbA1c = glycated haemoglobin; CRP = C-reactive protein.</p><p>*Total N varies due to variation in the amount of missing data.</p>†<p>geometric means and 95%CIs.</p

Mean % change (95% CI) in biomarker level, for women, per category increase in television-viewing (a) and sitting at work (b).

<p>Footnote: SBP = systolic blood pressure; DBP = diastolic blood pressure; HDL = high-density lipoprotein; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; HbA1c = glycated haemoglobin; CRP = C-reactive protein. *Quarter % change in CRP level per category increase in sedentary behaviour. Corresponding values for a % change in CRP per category increase in (a) television-viewing: 21.72% (95% CI: 17.42%, 26.02%), 15.56% (11.21%, 19.90%) and 8.39% (4.49%, 12.28%) and (b) sitting at work: −2.33% (−5.54%, 0.88%), −1.33% (−4.58%, 1.92%) and 0.13 (−2.74%, 3.00%) for “unadjusted”, “adjusted” and “adjusted+BMI+Diet” respectively. N varies from 3,752 to 3,037 due to variation in missing data. Model “Adjusted” includes: moderate-vigorous leisure activity frequency, smoking, social class at birth and in adulthood, education level, birth-weight, longstanding illness limiting daily activity, menopausal status, HRT and OC use; for total, HDL and LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, HbA1c, fibrinogen and CRP additional adjustment for hypertension; for SBP, DBP, HbA1c,fibrinogen and CRP additional adjustment for total and HDL-cholesterol. Model “Adjusted+Diet+BMI” includes: all factors mentioned above plus consumption of chips, sweets/chocolates, alcohol, and BMI.</p