Alkali Homogeneous Catalyzed Methyl Ester Synthesis from <em>Chrysophyllum albidum</em> Seed Oil: An Irreversible Consecutive Mechanism Approach

This chapter considers the application of alkaline (NaOH) based catalyzed methanolysis of seed oil from Chrysophyllum albidum (African star apple) as a viable route for synthesis of methyl esters (biodiesel). Specific consideration was given to the chemical kinetics and thermodynamics of the irreversible consecutive mechanism of the process on the basis of higher application of methanol/molar ratio (>3:1) as a feasible approach for generating required data for commercial scale-up of the process. The application of power rate law revealed that second order model was the best fitted model on the 328 K, 333 K and 338 K temperature and 0–100 min ranges studied. Rate constants of the glyceride hydrolysis were 0.00710, 0.00870 and 0.00910 wt% min−1 for the triglyceride (TG), 0.02390, 0.03040 and 0.03210 wt% min−1 for the diglycerides (DG) and 0.01600, 0.03710 and 0.04090 wt% min−1 for the monoglycerides (MG) at the above respective temperatures. The activation energies were 2.707, 7.30 and 23.33 kcal/mol respectively. TG hydrolysis to DG was the rate determining step. Rates of reactions were found to increase with increase temperature and mixing rate (200, 400 and 800 rpm). No optimal mixing rate was detected and the highest mixing rate of 800 rpm was the most favorable in the mixing range under investigation. The possible reason for the absence of lag period is formation of methyl esters, which acted as a solvent for the reactants, and consequently, made the reaction mixture a homogeneous single phase. The quality of the produced methyl esters were found to compare with international standards. All the results lead to more diverse and novel applications of the seed oil in biodiesel productions

Economic Feasibility Study on Sitting of Soap Plant in the South Eastern Nigeria

The success of the various governmental sustainable development goals (SDGs) are hinged in the level of development and robustness of the industries in such countries. Currently, scores of industries are winding up thereby creating unemployment, social insecurity, and poor standard of living. Lack of understanding of the requirements for running these industries coupled with over reliance on petroleum powered economy have been identified as the major cause of the above problem. Therefore, this feasibility study was undertaken using market and financial analysis as indices to determine the viability of soap production enterprise in the south eastern part of Nigeria.   Through the analysis of raw material, competitors, labour cost of infrastructure, overhead, annual maintenance, depreciation and cost of production, computation of yearly repayment amount, amortization schedule and  profit and loss estimation, an annual gross operating income of N1,427,802,000.00, annual gross operating expense of  N26,158,000.00, annual cost of production of N5,090,052,000.00 were realized with the worth of the project  being N126,651,300.00. The estimated net annual profit of N981,151,030.00 shows that the enterprise would pay off its cost of project after five years with justification of external funding. The project of establishing soap industries in the south eastern part of Nigeria is potentially profitable, feasible, viable and projected to have a healthy cash flow and viable long term. Keywords: Soap, Feasibility study, South East Nigeria, Profitability, Viabilit

Sea Almond as a Promising Feedstock for Green Diesel: Statistical Optimization and Power Rate Law Based Chemical Kinetics of Its Consecutive Irreversible Methanolysis

For successful industrial scale-up and effective cost analysis of transesterification process, presentation of complimentary research data from process optimization using statistical design techniques, chemical kinetics and thermodynamics are essential. Full factorial central composite design (FFCCD) was applied for the statistical optimization of base methanolysis of sea almond (Terminalia catappa) seed oil using response surface methodology (RSM) coupled with desirability function analysis on quadratic model. Reaction time had the most significant impact on the biodiesel yield. Optimum conditions for biodiesel yield of 93.09 wt% validated at 92.58 wt% were 50.03°C, 2.04 wt% catalyst concentration, 58.5 min and 4.66 methanol/oil molar ratio with overall desirability of 1.00. Ascertained fuel properties of the FAME were in compliance with international limits. GC–MS, FTIR and NMR characterizations confirmed unsaturation and good cold-flow qualities of the biodiesel. Based on power rate law, second-order kinetic model out-performed first-order kinetic model. Rate constants of the triglyceride (TG), diglycerides (DG) and monoglycerides (MG) hydrolysis were in the range of 0.00838–0.0409 wt%/min while activation energies were 12.76, 15.83 and 22.43 kcal/mol respectively. TG hydrolysis to DG was the rate determining step. The optimal conditions have minimal error and would serve as a springboard for industrial scale-up of biodiesel production from T. catappa seed oil

Extraction of Nigerian Beef Tallow by Wet Rendering Process and its Characterization

Nigeria has relied for several decades on the importation of tallow fat for her industries despite its inconsistency in availability and price in the market The above challenges and the recent soaring value of Dollars to Naira have made it highly necessary for Nigeria to consider the quantum of about 9 tonnes/day of tallow fat sent down the drain in each Nigerian slaughterhouse. Therefore, this research work has investigated the Physico-chemical quality of Nigerian beef tallow fat obtained by wet rendering of slaughterhouse waste from Obosi in Anambra State of Nigeria. It was analyzed using AOAC procedures (1990, 1993). The slaughter waste gave 15% yield of tallow fat with 199.5 mg/gkOH, 0.40%, 2.05% of saponification value, unsaponifable matter and Free Fatty Acid (FFA), respectively. The Gas Chromatography (GC) revealed the following fatty acids: 46.65% stearic acid, followed by 41.33% palmitic acid and 9.0% oleic acid. The results were found to be agreement with ISO and CODEX-STAN 211(1999) standards. To this end, the quality and usefulness of Nigerian beef tallow has been validated. Hence, investment in this area would help reposition Nigerian slaughterhouse waste matter control strategy, economy and industry

Synthesis and Physico-chemical Studies of Base Catalyzed Methanolysis of Some Virgin Tropical Seed Oils

The physico-chemical characterization of Prunus amygdalus, Dacryodes edulis and Chrysophillum albidium seed oils were investigated, together with their methyl esters. The vegetable oils were extracted by applying the solvent extraction method, using n-hexane. Prunus amygdalus had the highest oil yield (60.1%), followed by Dyacrodes edulis (55.76 %) and least from Chrysophillum albidium (13.67%). The oils and their biodiesel were then analyzed for acid value, free fatty acid, specific gravity, ash content, iodine value, peroxide value, saponification value, kinematic viscosity, flash point, smoke point, titre value, cloud point, moisture content and refractive index. Accordingly, Dyacrodes edulis seed oil had the highest acid value of 6.57 and required two-step transesterifictaion. The produced biodiesels were discussed in the light of ASTM D 9751, ASTMD 6751 and DIN 14214. These showed yields of 94.36%, 93.03% and 86.49%, cetane numbers of 70.40, 55.20 and 64.57 and calorific values of 31,178.39 KJ/kg, 34,421.50 KJ/kg and 32,838.38 KJ/kg for Prunus amygdalus, Dacryodes edulis and Chrysophyllum albidium, respectively. Other fuel-related properties showed highly improved qualities upon transesterification and compared well with ASTM and EU standards. The overall results showed that the seed oils are viable for biodiesel production

USE OF RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY (RSM) IN OPTIMISATION OF BIODIESEL PRODUCTION FROM COW TALLOW

In this study, beef tallow, waste from slaughterhouses was used as a feedstock for the production of biodiesel due to its high yield capacity, availability, and low cost. Sodium hydroxide and methanol were used as catalyst and solvent respectively. Characterization of oil and biodiesel samples were carried out using the Association of analytical chemist (AOAC) and American society of testing and materials (ASTM) respectively. Other characterization methods used are Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatographymass spectrophotometry (GC-MS) techniques. FTIR was carried out to characterize (identify the constituent elements) of both the feedstocks and their methyl esters. The fatty acid profile of the raw feedstocks and the produced methyl esters were obtained using the gas chromatograph to ascertain the % concentration of the different fatty acids. The physicochemical properties of the oils and biodiesel were also determined and compared with standards. Optimization of the processes was carried out using response surface methodology (RSM) under the platform of Design Expert 7.0.0 which uses statistical regression models. The optimized yield from transesterification of cow tallow using RSM was 83.82%, obtained with optimum operating parameters of Temperature (54.3oC), Time (51.65 mins), Catalyst concentration (1.82 wt%), Methanol/oil ratio (4.08 mol/mol) and stirring speed (302 rpm). This work thus not only confirms cow tallow as a viable feedstock for the production of biodiesel but also proves that a high enough yield of cow tallow biodiesel can be obtained at feasible reaction conditions. This study concluded that the use of response surface methodology proves to be a viable optimization technique albeit with its limitations in the transesterification process

Goat manure waste and palm oil mill effluent, viable crude oil degradation substrates: A thermodynamic and composting investigation studies

The composting and thermodynamic processes of crude oil (CO) degradation using the compost of goat manure origin (CGMO) and compost of palm oil mill effluent origin (CPOMEO) were studied. Microbial activity was investigated using the carbon dioxide (CO₂) evolution test. The physiochemical properties of the composts and that of the treated CO-contaminated soil (COCS) were also investigated. In particular, CGMO significantly improve CO degradation with the highest CO₂ evolution rate of 45 mg/g compared to the CPOMEO and the control. The CO degradation rates of 85.7 %, 71.4 %, and 14 % corresponded to the first-order CO degradation rate constants of 0.743 day−1, 0.689 day−1, and 0.136 day−1 for CGMO, CPOMEO, and control, respectively. The Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR) spectral pattern for both composts revealed adsorption bands that were identifiable with polysaccharides, potassium, and nitrogen, whereas the scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive spectrophotometry (SEMEDX) of CPOMEO indicated carbon and oxygen as the sole compositions. The negative ΔG and ΔH values indicated the spontaneity and exothermic nature of the CO composting process, respectively

Use of Response Surface Methodology (Rsm) in Optimisation of Biodiesel Production From Cow Tallow

In this study, beef tallow, waste from slaughterhouses was used as a feedstock for the production of biodiesel due to its high yield capacity, availability, and low cost. Sodium hydroxide and methanol were used as catalyst and solvent respectively. Characterization of oil and biodiesel samples were carried out using the Association of analytical chemist (AOAC) and American society of testing and materials (ASTM) respectively. Other characterization methods used are Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gas chromatographymass spectrophotometry (GC-MS) techniques. FTIR was carried out to characterize (identify the constituent elements) of both the feedstocks and their methyl esters. The fatty acid profile of the raw feedstocks and the produced methyl esters were obtained using the gas chromatograph to ascertain the % concentration of the different fatty acids. The physicochemical properties of the oils and biodiesel were also determined and compared with standards. Optimization of the processes was carried out using response surface methodology (RSM) under the platform of Design Expert 7.0.0 which uses statistical regression models. The optimized yield from transesterification of cow tallow using RSM was 83.82%, obtained with optimum operating parameters of Temperature (54.3oC), Time (51.65 mins), Catalyst concentration (1.82 wt%), Methanol/oil ratio (4.08 mol/mol) and stirring speed (302 rpm). This work thus not only confirms cow tallow as a viable feedstock for the production of biodiesel but also proves that a high enough yield of cow tallow biodiesel can be obtained at feasible reaction conditions. This study concluded that the use of response surface methodology proves to be a viable optimization technique albeit with its limitations in the transesterification process

Application of efficient soft computing approaches for modeling methyl ester yield from Azadirachta Indica (Neem) seed oil: A comparative study of RSM, ANN and ANFIS

This work centers on methyl ester yield modeling; by Azadirachta Indica seed oil (AISO) transesterification, using Adaptive Neuro-fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS), Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Response Surface Methodology (RSM). AISO was obtained from the seeds of Azadirachta Indica tree. The oils were extracted from the seeds using solvent extraction method. The physicochemical properties of AISO and Azadirachta Indica seed oil methyl ester (MAISOt) were determined using standard methods. Fatty acid composition was determined using, Gas Chromatography (GC). Statistical evaluations of these models show their efficacy in the order RSM < ANN < ANFIS, with ANFIS as the best; as indicated by its very high R2 value of 0.9999 and low RMS error value of 0.0011. The ANFIS predicted minimum and maximum values for % methyl ester yields were 54.66 and 90.25 %, respectively, while the other models predicted similar methyl ester yields. The physicochemical characterization results of AISO and MAISOtsamples, show that their respective viscosity, dielectric strength (DS), pour and flash points values were (8.83 and 3.47 mm 2s−1), (33.42 and 48.93 KV), (9 and -6 °C), and (162 and 174 °C). These results indicated the MAISOtsample’s potential use as a transformer fluid. GC result indicated that MAISOtwas unsaturated. Finally, on the basis of the gotten model results, ANFIS was adjudged as the best predictive model, followed by ANN and RSM, in that order

Techno-economic analysis of the statistically optimized biodiesel production process using African pear seed oil and activated empty palm fruit bunch biocatalyst

This research focuses on techno-economic analysis of the statistically optimized biodiesel production using African Pear Seed Oil and activated empty palm fruit bunch biocatalyst to ascertain the viability of producing African pear seed oil methyl ester (APSOME). Central composite design of response surface methodology (RSM) was used for the optimization of the process variables. The acid activated empty palm fruit bunch ash (AAEPFBA) catalyst used was synthesized from waste palm fruit bunch, and modified by adding H3PO4 acid in a ratio of 1:2 (g/ml). The RSM model predicted that the highest conversion yield of APSOME would be 89.3 %. The experiment performed yielded 90.1 %, which is in agreement with the predicted value at the following optimized reaction conditions: reaction temperature of 62.21 °C, time of 3.17 h, 10.2:1 methanol/oil molar ratio, 3.18 wt% catalyst concentration, and agitation speed of 326.51 rpm. It was established that the cost of labour will affect the profitability of produced APSOME. The overall result showed that AAEPFBA and APSO raw materials are viable and useful for sustainable biodiesel production