Bytes not waves: information communication technologies, global jihadism and counterterrorism

© The Author(s) 2020. Rapoport's conceptualization of the last, religious wave of four global waves remains highly influential. But it, and other typologies, have placed too little emphasis on the influence of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on the evolution of global jihadist activities. This article makes two new contributions by developing both a new ICT-based typology for understanding jihadist evolutions, and by focusing on successful attacks. Our central argument is that ICTs' impact on global jihadism has facilitated dramatic transformations of its strategy, organization and tactics since the 1990s, and that these can be understood as four overlapping iterations. ‘Jihadism 1.0’ describes the hierarchical, top-down directed and overseas financed and trained terrorist organizations that conducted iconic attacks at the turn of the millennium. Jihadism has since evolved into ‘Jihadism 2.0’ and then ‘Jihadism 3.0’. Jihadism 2.0 recognizes that a number of smaller, coordinated attacks can have a global impact. Jihadism 3.0 is inspired terrorism that has no links to the central terror organization, utilizing individuals and crude tactics. Finally, jihadism is evolving toward ‘Jihadism 4.0’, or cyberterrorism. We argue this typology provides a useful basis for scholars and practitioners to conceptualize the ICT dynamics influencing global jihadism, and these may be applicable to other global terrorists. The conclusion analyses how counter-terrorism services can respond to these evolutions and charts areas for future research.UK Research and Innovation Future Leaders Fellowship grant reference MR/S034412/1 and the GLOBSEC Intelligence Reform Initiativ

TNF-dependent regulation and activation of innate immune cells are essential for host protection against cerebral tuberculosis

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) affects one third of the global population, and TB of the central nervous system (CNS-TB) is the most severe form of tuberculosis which often associates with high mortality. The pro-inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor (TNF) plays a critical role in the initial and long-term host immune protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) which involves the activation of innate immune cells and structure maintenance of granulomas. However, the contribution of TNF, in particular neuron-derived TNF, in the control of cerebral M. tuberculosis infection and its protective immune responses in the CNS were not clear. METHODS: We generated neuron-specific TNF-deficient (NsTNF / ) mice and compared outcomes of disease against TNF f/f control and global TNF / mice. Mycobacterial burden in brains, lungs and spleens were compared, and cerebral pathology and cellular contributions analysed by microscopy and flow cytometry after M. tuberculosis infection. Activation of innate immune cells was measured by flow cytometry and cell function assessed by cytokine and chemokine quantification using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Intracerebral M. tuberculosis infection of TNF / mice rendered animals highly susceptible, accompanied by uncontrolled bacilli replication and eventual mortality. In contrast, NsTNF / mice were resistant to infection and presented with a phenotype similar to that in TNF f/f control mice. Impaired immunity in TNF / mice was associated with altered cytokine and chemokine synthesis in the brain and characterised by a reduced number of activated innate immune cells. Brain pathology reflected enhanced inflammation dominated by neutrophil influx. CONCLUSION: Our data show that neuron-derived TNF has a limited role in immune responses, but overall TNF production is necessary for protective immunity against CNS-TB

HIGH INTENSITY INTERVAL EXERCISE ON BLOOD PRESSURE VARIABILITY: AGE DIFFERENCES

Saniya Waghmare1, PT, Alicen A. Whitaker-Hilbig2, DPT, PhD, Mark Chertoff1, PhD, & Sandra A. Billinger1,3, PT, PhD 1University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas; 2Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; 3University of Kansas Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Fairway, Kansas PURPOSE: With aging, studies have linked elevated beat-to-beat blood pressure variability (BTB BPV) with negative cardiovascular health. BTB BPV is a measure of the physiological autonomic nervous and cardiovascular systems interplay. The objective was to characterize mean arterial pressure BTB BPV response during high intensity interval exercise (HIIE, an exercise that repetitively switches between high intensity and active recovery) to determine the effect of aging on sympathetic nervous activity during a challenging exercise stimulus. METHODS: Secondary analysis was performed on datasets of 25 young adults, 24.96 (1.64) years of age, 48% women and 25 sedentary older adults, 60.84 (13.84) years of age, 36% women. HIIE, alternated 1-minute bouts at 70% and 10% estimated Wattmax for 10 minutes, switching between high intensity and active recovery. Maximal watts were determined using a submaximal exercise test. Blood pressure was measured using finger photoplethysmography. Raw data sampled at 500 Hz was resampled at 10 Hz to obtain beat-to-beat blood pressure. We separated high-intensity and active recovery bouts, concatenating 5 minutes of data for each intensity. Low frequency power spectral density (LF PSD) of BTB BPV was obtained by Fast Fourier transform and cross spectral density, 100-s Hanning window, 50% superposition. LF PSD, reflecting sympathetic nervous activity influence, was summed within the BTB BPV spectral range of 0.04 – 0.15 Hz. We tested normality using Shapiro Wilk test and sphericity using Mauchly’s test. The Mann-Whitney U test was used for analysis between age groups. RESULTS: LF PSD during the high-intensity bouts of HIIE for young adults was 1177.5 (662.3) mm2/Hg, and for older adults was 1274.4 (1348.2) mm2/Hg; Z = -0.84, p = 0.3. Average LF PSD during HIIE recovery for young adults was 1743.2 (1145.5) mm2/Hg, and for older adults was 1226.3 (1064.4) mm2/Hg; Z = -2.45, p \u3c 0.05. CONCLUSION: BTB BPV reflected sympathetic activity measured by LF PSD did not differ with aging during the high intensity bouts of HIIE, LF PSD reduced in older adults during the recovery bouts. Future studies should examine the relationship between reduced sympathetic activity responsiveness during HIIE and changes in vascular structures, reduced baroreflex sensitivity and adrenergic sensitivity with aging