Effects of antimicrobial addition on lipid oxidation of rendered chicken fat

This study evaluated the effects of antimicrobial acidulant addition on lipid oxidation of rendered chicken fat. Chicken fat was untreated (control) or treated with either sodium bisulfate (SBS) or lactic acid (LA) at 0.5% w/w and incubated for 6 wk at 40 °C. Peroxide value (PV), p-anisidine value (AV), and free fatty acid (FFA) levels were measured at days 0 (D0), 1(D1), 3 (D3), 5 (D5), and 7 (D7), and weeks 2 (W2), 3 (W3), 4 (W4), 5 (W5), and 6 (W6). The FFA level of untreated-control fat was ~7% and remained consistent throughout the incubation until W6 (~8.5%; P \u3c 0.05). The FFA values in SBS-treated fat were constant (range 7.25%–8.30%) throughout the incubation, whereas the FFA in LA-treated fat peaked at W5 (9.3%; P \u3c 0.05). For the control fat, PVs were between 0.56 and 0.67 meq/100 g until W1 then declined. For the SBS-treated fat, the PVs remained low and similar to the control with the exception of a slight increase on W4 to 0.38 meqv/100 g (P \u3c 0.05). In the LA-treated fat, the PV was greater than (P \u3c 0.05) the control from W1 and increased to a peak on W5 (2.52 meq/100 g). The AV of control fat averaged 2.12 at D0 and increased through W2. In control and LA-treated fat, the AV values declined slightly thereafter, whereas SBS-treated fat increased (P \u3c 0.05) to 10.28 on W5. This study indicates that when included at antimicrobial effective levels, LA may reduce the shelf-life of chicken fat, but SBS had a minimal effect over 6 wk of storage

Mitigation of \u3ci\u3eSalmonella\u3c/i\u3e on Food Contact Surfaces by Using Organic Acid Mixtures Containing 2-Hydroxy-4-(methylthio) Butanoic Acid (HMTBa)

Contaminated surfaces can transmit pathogens to food in industrial and domestic food-handling environments. Exposure to pathogens on food contact surfaces may take place via the cross-contamination of pathogens during postprocessing activities. Formaldehyde-based commercial sanitizers in recent years are less commonly being used within food manufacturing facilities due to consumer perception and labeling concerns. There is interest in investigating clean-label, food-safe components for use on food contact surfaces to mitigate contamination from pathogenic bacteria, including Salmonella. In this study, the antimicrobial effects of two types of organic acid mixtures containing 2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio) butanoic acid (HMTBa), Activate DA™ and Activate US WD-MAX™, against Salmonella when applied onto various food contact surfaces were evaluated. The efficacy of Activate DA (HMTBa + fumaric acid + benzoic acid) at 1% and 2% and Activate US WD-MAX (HMTBa + lactic acid + phosphoric acid) at 0.5% and 1% against Salmonella enterica (serovars Enteritidis, Heidelberg, and Typhimurium) were evaluated on six different material surfaces: plastic (bucket elevator and tote bag), rubber (bucket elevator belt and automobile tire), stainless steel, and concrete. There was a significant difference in the Salmonella log reduction on the material surfaces due to the organic acid treatments when compared to the untreated surfaces. The type of material surface also had an effect on the log reductions obtained. Stainless steel and plastic (tote) had the highest Salmonella log reductions (3–3.5 logs), while plastic (bucket elevator) and rubber (tire) had the lowest log reductions (1–1.7 logs) after treatment with Activate US WD-MAX. For Activate DA, the lowest log reductions (~1.6 logs) were observed for plastic (bucket elevator) and rubber (tire), and the highest reductions were observed for plastic (tote), stainless steel, and concrete (2.8–3.2 logs). Overall, the results suggested that Activate DA at 2% and Activate US WD-MAX at 1% are potentially effective at reducing Salmonella counts on food contact surfaces by 1.6–3.5 logs

Evaluation of Mixing Efficacy of Carriers for Supplemental Nutrient Premixes in Animal Feed

Animal feed is commonly formulated with vitamin and mineral premixes to supply the micronutrient requirements of the animal. Premixes typically require carriers which act as a delivery system for micronutrients to aid in uniformity, dilution, and dispersibility across the entire mix. However, little information is available regarding how different carriers might influence the dispersion of nutrients throughout a premix. Therefore, the main objective was to develop a method to systematically evaluate the mixing efficacy of different carriers in a premix formulation. A currently established analysis of mixer uniformity was adapted and repurposed for the evaluation of the premix carriers, rice hulls, pea fiber, and soy hulls. These carriers were evaluated in duplicate 40-lb batch sizes using a single-shaft, double ribbon horizontal mixer. Additionally, these carriers were described based on their physical properties and flow behavior. For the mixer efficacy evaluation, pea fiber had the largest coefficient of variation (CV) (17.08%). Rice hulls, which are the industry standard, and soy hulls were similar to one another (6.02 and 5.36%, respectively) and had acceptable CV. Soy hulls had the largest mean particle size (802.46 μm ± 2.04), followed by pea fiber (458.42 μm ± 2.84), and rice hulls had the smallest mean particle size (339.35 μm ± 1.79). Soy hulls had the largest critical orifice diameter (COD), followed by pea fiber, and COD was smallest for rice hulls, (30, 28, and 20 mm, respectively). Pea fiber had the largest angle of repose at 41.00° and was followed closely by rice hulls at 40.24°. Soy hulls had shallowest angle at 35.28°. The particle size analysis, COD, and angle of repose give useful indications of an ingredient’s handling behavior. However, there is no easily discernible relationship between these tests and mixing efficacy of these carriers. This supports the utility of a separate analysis to evaluate mixing efficacy for specific ingredients. Rice hulls are the industry standard and continue to rank better on numerous metrics than other carriers, including their lower cost and improved ingredient-handling capabilities. Rice hulls and soy hulls also had better mixing uniformity, indicating that these two ingredients would better facilitate the distribution of nutrients across a premix. However, some sectors of the feed/ pet food industry have pushed to remove cereal grains and/or soy from their products. With these market demands, feed manufacturers may need to find alternatives to the more traditional ingredients that can be evaluated by these techniques

A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food

In companion animal nutrition, probiotics (direct-fed microbials) are marketed as functional ingredients that add value to pet foods due to the impact they have on gastrointestinal and immune health of dogs and cats. The nature of the beneficial effect each probiotic strain exerts depends on its metabolic properties and perhaps most importantly, the arrival of a sufficient number of viable cells to the large bowel of the host. Pet food manufacturing processes are designed to improve food safety and prolong shelf-life, which is counterproductive to the survival of direct-fed microbials. Therefore, a prerequisite for the effective formulation of pet foods with probiotics is an understanding of the conditions each beneficial bacterial strain needs to survive. The aims of this chapter are: (1) To summarize the inherent characteristics of probiotic strains used in commercial pet foods, and (2) To review recently published literature on the applications of probiotics to pet foods and their associated challenges to viability

Evaluation of a yeast β-glucan blend in a pet food application to determine its impact on stool quality, apparent nutrient digestibility, and intestinal health when fed to dogs

Oral supplementation of β-glucans may be able to improve the health of companion animals. However, little is understood regarding the effects of yeast β-glucan on diet processing and intestinal function. Therefore, the objectives of this research were to determine the carry through of yeast β-glucan during extruded diet production and its impact on diet utilization by dogs. Three diets were formulated to contain increasing levels of a yeast β-glucan blend at 0, 0.012 and 0.023% inclusion. Processing inputs were held constant during extrusion to allow for evaluation of output parameters and physical characteristics of kibble. Yeast β-glucan concentration was analyzed in extruded diets using the glucan enzymatic method, resulting in >100% recovery. Twenty-four Labrador Retrievers were assigned to one of three dietary groups of 8 dogs each with an equal distribution of sex and age. Dogs were fed dietary treatments for 24-d adaption followed by 4-d total fecal collection. Feces were scored on a 1-5 scale, with 1 representing liquid diarrhea and 5 hard pellet-like with a fecal score of 3.5-4 considered ideal. Fresh fecal samples were collected for analysis of short chain fatty acid concentrations. Apparent total tract digestibility was calculated by total fecal collection (TFC) and titanium (TI) marker methods. Data were analyzed using a mixed model procedure in software (version 9.4, SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC). Dry bulk density, kibble diameter, and kibble length did not differ among dietary treatments. Intake was similar among dietary treatments (P > 0.05). Dogs required about 26% more food than estimated [130*BWkg0.75] to maintain body weight among all treatments. Fecal score was not different (P > 0.05) among dietary treatments but was lower than ideal at an average of 2.6. Nutrient digestibility was not affected (P > 0.05) by inclusion of the yeast β-glucan. By method, the TFC procedure resulted in higher (P< 0.05) digestibility values when compared to the TI procedure. In addition, yeast β-glucan did not alter short or branched chain fatty acid proportions. Overall, processing parameters, physical characteristics of kibble, stool quality, nutrient digestibility, and intestinal health in dogs were not affected by the yeast β-glucan blend

Effects of liquid smoke preparations on shelf life and growth of wild type mold and Aspergillus flavus in a model semi moist pet food

Liquid smoke is a naturally derived flavor component and preservative with known antimicrobial properties. To our knowledge, there is a paucity of information on antifungal potential of liquid smoke against toxigenic fungi like Aspergillus flavus that produce mycotoxins in human and pet foods. Semi-moist pet food with high moisture content (20–30%) is susceptible to mold contamination and requires intervention. The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of liquid smoke preparations on the growth of wild-type mold and A. flavus in semi-moist pet food. Semi-moist pet food was formulated with eight different liquid smoke preparations (S1–S8) containing varying amounts of organic acids, phenol and carbonyl compounds (ranging from low to high) at 0% (untreated), 0.5, 1, 2, and 4% (w/w). A positive control consisted of 0.2% potassium sorbate known to inhibit mold growth. Shelf life was estimated by storing the samples at 28°C and 65–70% RH over 30 days and recording the number of days until the appearance of visible wild-type mold. In another experiment, samples were spot inoculated with A. flavus (∼10,000 CFU/mL), incubated at 25°C, and analyzed for fungal growth at sampling intervals of 2 days over a 35-day period. Liquid smoke at 0.5, 1, 2, and 4% extended the shelf life of samples on an average by a total of 11.6, 12.5, 17.2, and 24.1 days when compared to the untreated samples (7.7 days). The smoke preparations Cloud S-C100 (S3) and Code-10 (S6) (high carbonyl, medium/low phenol) were the most effective (P < 0.05) in prolonging the number of days to visible mold growth (26–28 days). In the challenge study with A. flavus, Cloud S-C100 (S3), Cloud S-AC15 (S8) (high to medium carbonyl, low phenol), and Code 10 (S6) (base smoke) reduced (P < 0.05) mold counts by 1.0, 1.7, and 2.5 logs when compared to the untreated samples at 1, 2, and 4%, respectively. Addition of smoke at 0.5% did not reduce mold counts. The carbonyl preparations of liquid smoke were the most effective at enhancing shelf life of semi-moist pet food, and at inhibiting A. flavus growth

Comparison of the Antifungal Efficacy of EverWild and Citrus Extracts Challenged Against Aspergillus flavus in Semi-Moist Pet Treats

There are increasing requests by pet owners to pet food manufacturers to formulate diets with fewer synthetic additives in favor of more ‘natural’ and sustainably sourced substitutes. Pet owners believe that natural alternatives are healthier and offer longevity to their pets. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate and compare the antifungal efficacy of two natural products, fermented whey protein (EverWild; EV) and citrus extract essential oil, when challenged against Aspergillus flavus inoculated in semi-moist pet treats. Semi-moist treats generally contain moisture levels of 20–30%, which is ideal for mold proliferation. The experiment was completely randomized in design. The model and nutritionally complete semi-moist pet treats were produced with three levels of EV (1.0%, 3.0%, and 5.0%), citrus extract (1.0%, 3.0%, and 5.0%), a positive control that contained 0.1% potassium sorbate, or a negative control that contained no treatment. Each treatment was replicated twice and plated in duplicate during fungal analysis. The semi-moist treats were cut into biscuits and inoculated with 0.1 mL aliquots of Aspergillus flavus cultures. Fungal analysis was performed at 0, 3, 6, 9,12, 15, 18, 21, 24, and 28 days. Overall, the survivors of Aspergillus flavus were reduced over time in all treatments including the negative control. When determining the log reduction from d 0 to 28, the EV included at 1.0%, 3.0%, and 5.0% had a 1.90, 3.89, and 4.58 Log CFU/biscuit reduction while the positive and negative control had 1.19 Log CFU and 0.84 Log CFU/biscuit reduction, respectively. There was a significant difference (P \u3c 0.05) in log reduction between EV at 3.0% and 5.0% compared to 1.0% EV, the positive and negative controls, 1.0%, 3.0%, and 5.0% citrus extracts. Citrus extract at 1.0%, 3.0%, and 5.0% had a 1.19, 2.34, and 2.63 Log CFU/biscuit reduction compared to the positive and negative controls (1.19 Log CFU and 0.84 Log CFU/biscuit). In conclusion, a fermented whey protein could be used to inhibit mold growth in semi-moist pet treats

Application of Encapsulated Lactic Acid to Control the Growth and Multiplication of Salmonella enterica in Raw Meat-Based Diets for Dogs

Antimicrobial interventions currently being applied to control foodborne pathogens in raw meat-based diets (RMBDs) for dogs are rare and costly, and yet their demand keeps rising. The objective of this study was to determine the antimicrobial efficacy of encapsulated lactic acid challenged against Salmonella enterica inoculated in model RMBD. Nutritionally complete model RMBDs were prepared with three levels of encapsulated lactic acid (1.0%, 2.0%, and 3.0%) and formed into approximately 100 g patties. Each treatment was replicated twice, and dilutions were plated in duplicate during microbial analysis. The negative control (NC) and positive control (PC) did not contain any lactic acid. The patties containing lactic acid and the positive control were inoculated with 0.1 mL of three-cocktail serovars of Salmonella enterica and refrigerated at 40°F. The negative control was to check for any background Salmonella during the study. Microbial analysis by plating serially diluted aliquots of 0.1 mL on XLT4 agar was performed on d 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, and 22. The total log reductions obtained by the encapsulated lactic acid at these levels were 1.0% with a 2.97 Log CFU/patty, 2.0% with a 3.42 Log CFU/patty, and 3.0% with a 3.91 Log CFU/patty reduction. The log reductions were considered significant (P \u3c 0.05) at each treatment level as increasing lactic acid concentrations in the patties resulted into more pathogen death compared to the positive control treatment patties that contained no lactic acid. Microbial analysis was completed on multiple days and there was a significant interaction (P \u3c 0.05) between time (days) and the different treatment levels as log reductions from each treatment increased over time. In conclusion, encapsulated lactic acid can be used as a more economical antimicrobial intervention in raw meat-based diets for dogs

Effects of different chicken protein sources on palatability in dry adult dog food

As the demand for dog food production continues to rise, along with the number of dogs per household in the US, sustainable ingredients must be considered for the pet food industry. Consumers have a negative perspective when it comes to animal by-products in their pet’s food. However, animal by-products contribute a quality source of dietary protein, vitamins, and minerals which contribute to nutritionally complete pet foods. Along with being nutritionally complete, foods must also appeal to the dog while eating. The objective of this study was to produce formulas utilizing four different chicken protein sources, and to evaluate the effects of those protein sources on palatability in dogs. Five treatments were produced, through extrusion, using fresh mechanically deboned chicken at two different inclusion levels: (FMDC14 and FMDC25), dried chicken (DC), chicken meal (CM), and chicken by-product meal (CBPM). Four trained panels of twenty-five adult dogs, made up of majority Beagles, randomly divided by sex, were used for palatability testing using the two-bowl test. Based on the palatability results from this study, the CBPM treatment was preferred (p<0.05) over the FMDC14, FMDC25, and DC treatments. The CBPM treatment was at parity to the CM treatment (p>0.05). It can be concluded that the CBPM treatment was considered palatable to the dogs

Effects of Dietary Amino Acid Density and Exogenous Protease Inclusion on Growth Performance and Apparent Ileal AA Digestibility in Broilers

Protein is one of the most expensive nutrients in poultry diets. In an effort to minimize feed costs, protein digestion and utilization by the animal must be carried out as efficiently as possible. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary AA density and exogenous protease inclusion on growth performance and AA digestibility in broilers. Treatments consisted of a 2 × 4 factorial design with main effects of commercial protease (with or without) and digestible Lys (1.12, 1.15, 1.18, or 1.21%). Broiler chicks were housed in 4 Petersime batteries and treatments were randomly assigned to 80 cages within location block, resulting in 10 cages per treatment with 6 chicks per cage at placement. A commercial enzyme complex with 3 proteolytic activities was added to the protease diets at 0.25 lb/ton, and the same inclusion of sand was added to the diets without protease. Diets were balanced by energy and Lys:amino acid ratios. Titanium dioxide was included in the diets at 0.5% as an indigestible marker. On d 20, ileal contents from 2 chicks per cage were collected and composited by cage for calculation of apparent ileal AA digestibility. Growth performance metrics were calculated from cage weights and feed consumption was recorded throughout the experiment, and AA digestibility data were obtained from analysis of ileal contents. Data were analyzed using SAS 9.4 with cage as the experimental unit and cage location as the blocking factor. There was no evidence of an amino acid density × protease interaction (P \u3e 0.05) for BW, ADG or ADFI. There was an amino acid density × protease interaction (quadratic, P \u3c 0.05) for feed conversion ratio (FCR). Chicks fed 1.12 and 1.21% digestible Lys diets with added protease had a 2-point improvement in FCR compared to chicks fed these diets without protease. There was no difference in FCR between birds consuming diets with or without protease when fed 1.15 and 1.18% digestible Lys diets. There was no evidence of difference (P \u3e 0.10) in ADG or ADFI due to dietary amino acid density throughout the feeding period. However, broiler FCR was improved (linear, P \u3c 0.01) by increasing dietary amino acid density from 1.12 to 1.21% digestible Lys. There was no evidence (P \u3e 0.10) of main effect of added protease on BW, ADG, ADFI, or FCR. There was not an amino acid density × protease interaction (P \u3e 0.09) or main effect of dietary amino acid density or protease inclusion (P \u3e 0.12) on apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of Lys, Arg, Met, Cys, Thr, Ile, Leu, Val, or Trp. In conclusion, increasing dietary amino acid density improved FCR in broiler chicks, and the rate of improvement was dependent on the inclusion of an exogenous protease